The composition of the fuel energy industry the world includes the oil, coal, gas and power industries. The fuel and energy industry belongs to basic industries, the development of this complex of industries underlies the development of the economy of any country.
FEB is a set of indicators that characterize the structure of extraction, production and consumption of all types of fuel and energy in any territory. In this case, the whole world is considered.
Before World War II, coal played the main role in the TEB structure. After the war, the development of the richest oil fields in the Persian Gulf began. The role of oil in the development of the economies of the countries of the world began to grow rapidly, and in the main centers of consumption (the USA, Western Europe and Japan), a very rapid substitution of coal for oil took place. By 1973, the share of oil, for example, in the structure of the fuel and energy balance of the Common Market countries (the modern EU) was already about three quarters. Similar changes have taken place in other centers of consumption.
Initially, oil in the Persian Gulf was developed by the world's leading oil multinational corporations “seven sisters” (British Petroleum, American Texaco, Exxon, Standard Oil Company of California, Gulf Oil, Standard Oil Company ( Indiana) ”and the Anglo-Dutch“ Royal Dutch Shell Group ”). The countries on whose territory unique oil resources were discovered are beginning to fight for their rights, for which in 1960 the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was created. As a result, by 1973, the OPEC countries were already producing about 60% of the world's oil, having nationalized more than half of their oil-producing capacities, that is, they could control oil prices. In October 1973, as a result of yet another Arab-Israeli conflict, Arab countries announced an embargo on oil supplies to those countries they suspected of supporting Israel. As a result, the oil price increased more than fivefold (from $ 2.5 per barrel to 12-13).
This increase in oil prices hit hard on the main consumers - the developed countries. Period 1973-1974 received the name of the first energy crisis. From this point on, developed countries begin to make attempts to weaken their dependence on oil. Gas consumption is increasing, attention to nuclear energy is increasing, and some rehabilitation of the coal industry, which at that time was in a state of crisis, is taking place. Many countries begin to search for and produce oil on the shelf, and during this period, such new oil-producing regions of the world as the North Sea, the shelf of Alaska, and the Campeche Bay (Mexico) appear. 120 countries have access to the sea, and about 100 of them have begun to search for oil on the shelf.
After the first energy crisis, the restructuring of the energy economy of the world and the economy as a whole begins.
A new jump in prices (up to $ 34 per barrel) occurred in 1981. The reason was also the aggravation of the political situation in the Near and Middle East. The economies of developed countries were in a state of shock. As a result, the construction of thermal power plants using fuel oil has practically ceased in developed countries. There has been a 1.5-fold increase in oil production in non-OPEC countries. By the mid-1980s, the oil market was becoming a buyers' market. The OPEC countries were forced to cut oil production by almost half and introduce a quota system. But, nevertheless, the situation on the world oil market got out of the control of these countries. In mid-1986, the oil price dropped to $ 10 a barrel.
The next jump in oil prices (up to $ 40 per barrel) occurred in 1990 as a result of the Gulf War. The high oil price lasted for a very short period, but this situation triggered a general slowdown and then a fall in GDP growth in industrialized countries. By 1993, almost all developed countries entered a state of crisis.
The next most significant spikes in oil prices, exceeding $ 20 per barrel, were observed in 1997 and 1999, the price increased following the US air bombing of Iraq and Yugoslavia. Currently, the oil price continues to rise.
By the end of the 90s, the share of oil in the TEB structure decreased to 40%, the share of gas increased to 23%, coal consumption increased from 19 (minimum in the early 70s) to 28%, the share of nuclear energy was 7%, hydropower - 3%.
It is unlikely that a significant decrease in oil consumption should be expected, since, despite a decrease in its share in the fuel and energy balance, oil remains the main fuel. The consumption of natural gas and coal will grow, and the use of atomic energy will undoubtedly increase - many countries simply have no other way out to solve energy problems. The role of alternative sources in the structure of energy consumption is still insignificant, although significant research is being carried out in many countries.
The following trends are projected for major consumption regions by 2020. In North America, oil and gas consumption is expected to decrease with the increasing role of coal and nuclear energy. In countries Western Europe against the background of a slight decrease in oil and gas consumption, the share of imported fuel, primarily coal, will increase. The Japanese economy, as before, will be built on imported fuel, and a significant increase in nuclear energy production is expected.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Penza State University
Department of Economics, Finance and Management.
Course work
by discipline: "Economic geography and regional studies"
Topic:“Fuel and energy complex of Russia.
Composition, importance in the economy, development problems, fuel and energy complex and environmental protection problems ”.
Completed: student of group 08BH5
Krivonosova M.A.
Received by: Associate Professor N.V. Lushnikova
Course work contains 40 pages, 2 tables, 10 used literature sources.
Keywords:
Fuel and energy complex and its importance in Russia
The composition of the fuel and energy complex: electric power, oil production and oil refining, gas and coal industries. Problems and prospects for the development of each industry.
Problems of the fuel and energy complex and prospects for its development in the long term (until 2030)
Fuel and energy complex and the environment
Introduction 4-5 pp.
1. The value of the fuel and energy complex in Russia 5-6 pages.
2. The composition of the fuel and energy complex 6-22 p.
2.1. Power facilities 6-11 p.
2.2. Oil industry 11-14 p.
2.3. Oil refining industry 14-15 pp.
2.4.Gas industry 15-18 p.
2.5. Coal industry 18-22 p.
3. Problems and prospects for the development of the fuel and energy complex 22-34 p.
4. Fuel and energy complex and problems of environmental protection 34-37 p.
Conclusion 37-39 p.
List of used literature 40 p.
Introduction
Developing, mankind begins to use all new types of resources (nuclear and geothermal energy, solar, hydroelectric power of the ebb and flow, wind and other unconventional sources). However, the main role in providing energy to all sectors of the economy today is played by fuel resources. This clearly reflects the "income" of the fuel and energy balance.
The fuel and energy complex of the Russian Federation is the basis of the country's economy, ensuring the vital activity of all sectors of the economy, the consolidation of the country's regions into a single economic space, the formation of a significant part of budget revenues and foreign exchange earnings. Ultimately, the country's balance of payments, the maintenance of the ruble exchange rate and the degree to which Russia's debt burden has been reduced, depend on the results of the fuel and energy complex. The fuel and energy complex is the most important link in the chain of transformations associated with the transition to a market economy.
The fuel and energy complex is closely linked with the entire industry of the country. More than 20% of the funds are spent on its development. The fuel and energy complex accounts for 30% of fixed assets and 30% of the cost industrial products Russia. He uses 10% of the products machine-building complex, 12% of metallurgy production, consumes 2/3 of pipes in the country, provides more than half of the Russian Federation's exports and a significant amount of raw materials for the chemical industry. Its share in transportation is 1/3 of all cargo by rail, half of transportation sea transport and all pipeline transportation. The fixed assets of the fuel and energy complex make up about one third of the industrial assets of the industry.
The fuel and energy complex has a large district-forming function. The well-being of all citizens of Russia is directly related to it, such problems as unemployment and inflation.
Uninterrupted operation of the fuel and energy complex is one of the key factors of national economic security, dynamic development of foreign economic relations of Russia and integration processes within the framework of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
1. The value of the fuel and energy complex in Russia
The fuel and energy complex is the most important structural component of the Russian economy, one of the key factors in ensuring the country's life. The complex produces more than a quarter of Russia's industrial products and significantly influences the formation of the country's budget.
Currently, the fuel and energy complex is one of the stably operating industrial complexes of the Russian economy. It has a decisive influence on the state and development prospects of the national economy, providing: about ¼ of GDP production, 1/3 of the volume industrial production and revenues of the consolidated budget of Russia, about half of the federal budget revenues, exports and foreign exchange earnings.
Fully providing itself with fuel and energy resources, Russia is also a major exporter of fuel and energy, they account for about 60% of its export potential.
Russia has always been considered one of the leading energy states in the world. In the world production of fuel and energy, it accounts for 23% of the produced gas, about 10% of oil (including gas condensate), almost 6% of coal and 6% of electricity. There is full confidence that the role of fuel and energy resources in the formation of sustainable energy supply will remain in the XXΙ century.
In Russia, the importance of the fuel and energy complex is especially great.
Firstly, due to the huge resource potential: having 2.4% of the population and 13% of the world's territory, it has 12-13% of predicted fuel and energy resources, including more than 12% of proven oil reserves, more than 30% of gas reserves , more than 11% of the explored coal reserves.
Secondly, it has a unique production, scientific, technical and personnel potential.
Thirdly, the important place of the fuel and energy complex is determined climatic conditions, in which the provision of energy resources to the economy and population of the country is a vital factor in the existence of entire regions.
The structure of the Russian economy in the 1990s changed in the direction opposite to world trends. The share of raw materials, including energy resources, in the structure of world GDP is constantly decreasing. In developed countries, GDP growth is accounted for mainly by the manufacturing industry (especially modern high-tech industries) and the service sector.
The opposite situation in Russia: now the share of the fuel and energy complex in Russia accounts for about 30% of industrial production, 32% of the consolidated and 54% of the federal budget revenues, 54% of exports, and about 45% of Russia's foreign exchange earnings. Over the past 10 years, the share of high value-added industries in the structure of industrial production has decreased.
2. Fuel and energy complex composition
The fuel and energy complex of Russia is an interconnectedly functioning electric power, oil production and oil refining, gas and coal industries.
2.1 ... Electric power industry
Electricity is engaged in the generation and transmission of electricity and is the largest backbone industry in Russia. The entire national economy of the country depends on the level of its development.
A distinctive feature of the Russian economy is the higher energy intensity of the national income produced in comparison with developed countries (almost one and a half times higher than in the United States). Therefore, it is necessary to widely introduce energy-saving technologies and equipment. However, even in the conditions of a decrease in the energy intensity of GDP, the specificity of the development of energy production is the constantly increasing need for it in the production and social spheres. The electric power industry plays an important role in the transition to a market economy - the way out of economic crisis, solving social problems. Over 60% of the increase in electricity consumption will be spent on solving social problems.
A feature of the electric power industry is that its products cannot be accumulated until further use, therefore, consumption corresponds to the production of electricity both in size (of course, taking into account losses) and in time. There are stable interdistrict connections for the import and export of electricity. The power industry is a branch of specialization of the Volga and Siberian federal districts... Large power plants play a significant district-forming role. On their basis, energy-intensive and heat-intensive industries arise.
It is impossible to imagine our life today without electric energy. Electricity has invaded all spheres of human activity: industry, agriculture, science and space. Our everyday life is inconceivable without electricity. Such widespread use is explained by its specific properties:
· The ability to transform into almost all other types of energy (thermal, mechanical, sound, light, etc.);
· The ability to relatively easily be transmitted over long distances in large quantities;
· Huge speeds of electromagnetic processes;
· Ability to crush and change parameters - voltage, frequency.
In industry, electrical energy is used to drive various mechanisms directly in technological processes. The work of modern communication facilities (telegraph, telephone, radio, television) is based on the use of electricity. Without it, the development of cybernetics, computing technology, and the space industry would have been impossible.
The electric power industry plays a huge role in the transport industry. Electric transport does not pollute environment... A large amount of electricity is consumed by an electrified railway transport, which allows increasing the throughput of roads by increasing the speed of trains, reducing the cost of transportation, and increasing fuel economy.
Electricity in everyday life is the main factor in ensuring a comfortable life for people. The level of development of the electric power industry reflects the level of development productive forces society and the possibilities of scientific and technological progress.
The power industry has about 700 power plants with a total installed capacity of 215 million kW, of which 150 million kW are thermal power plants, 44 million kW are hydroelectric power plants and 21 million kW are nuclear power plants. About 95% of the power plants' capacities operate in parallel in a single mode as part of the UES of Russia. The length of power transmission lines of all line voltages is 2500 thousand km, of which 30 thousand km are over 500 kV and above. Electricity transport is classified by Russian legislation as a natural monopoly. The structure of the industry is formed of 73 regional energy associations (AO-energos) and RAO "UES of Russia" with subsidiaries.
Compared to 1990. there was a decrease in energy production. This is largely due to the aging of energy equipment. The analysis of electricity consumption and production shows that the most difficult situation with energy supply is developing in the regions that are supplied with imported fuel. This is due to the untimely purchase of fuel and violation of regulatory reserves in the autumn-winter period, with chronic underfunding of energy enterprises. Similar miscalculations are present at the regional and federal levels, which indicates insufficient state regulation of the electric power industry. A sharp decrease in capacity causes a critical situation in the supply of electricity to a number of regions of Russia ( Of the Far East, North Caucasus etc.).
Electricity production data are shown in Table 1:
Generation of electricity generated by hydroelectric power plants, nuclear power plants, geothermal and wind power plants (million tons)
| 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 1995 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 |
| 33,4 | 63,2 | 98,3 | 95,4 | 102 | 108 | 105 | 106 | 111 | 112 | 114 |
In the development of the energy sector, great importance is attached to the issues of the correct location of the electric power industry. The most important condition rational placement of power plants is a comprehensive account of the need for electricity in all industries National economy country and the needs of the population, as well as each economic region for the future.
One of the principles of placing the electric power industry at the present stage of development of the market economy is the preferential construction of thermal power plants of small capacity, the introduction of new types of fuel. Development of a long-distance high-voltage power transmission network.
A feature of the development of the electric power industry is construction of nuclear power plants, first of all, in areas with scarce fuel resources. NPPs in their location take into account the consumer factor. It has been established that the energy equivalent of the world's proven reserves of nuclear fuel is many times greater than the energy equivalent of the world's known reserves of coal, oil and hydropower taken together. In addition, the advantage of nuclear power plants over others is that they can be built in any region, regardless of its fuel or water resources.
An essential feature of the development and placement of the electric power industry is a wide construction of combined heat and power plants(CHP) for district heating of various industries and utilities. Heating is understood as a centralized supply of heat to cities and industrial enterprises with the simultaneous production of electricity. Heating saves fuel and almost doubles the efficiency of power plants, makes it possible to produce cheap heat energy for heating, ventilation and hot water supply and, therefore, contributes to better satisfaction of the domestic needs of the population.
V practical work In terms of the location of power plants, cooperation between hydroelectric power plants and thermal power plants is of great importance. This is due to the fact that the generation of electricity at hydropower plants fluctuates greatly throughout the year due to changes in the water regime of rivers. Combining thermal and hydraulic power plants in one power system makes it possible to compensate for the lack of energy generation at hydro power plants during dry periods of the year using electricity generated at thermal power plants.
The structure of electricity generation is approximately as follows: 66.8 are produced by thermal power plants, about 18% by hydroelectric power plants, and the rest (15.2%) by nuclear power plants.
Key provisions new energy policy should become:
1.Bringing, simultaneously with the convertibility of the ruble, prices for energy resources in line with world prices with the gradual elimination of price imbalances in the domestic market;
2. corporatization of enterprises of the fuel and energy complex with the attraction of funds from the population, foreign investors and domestic commercial structures;
3. support for independent producers of energy carriers, primarily focused on the use of local and renewable energy resources;
4. preservation of the integrity of the electric power complex and the UES of Russia.
Based on the projected volumes of demand for electricity at high rates of economic development, the total production of electricity may increase by 2010 to 1070 billion kW.
In the future, Russia should abandon the construction of large thermal and hydraulic stations, which require huge investments and create environmental stress.
Thermal power plants will remain the backbone of the Russian electric power industry for the entire considered prospect. The specific weight of the capacity of which in the structure of the installed capacity of the industry will remain at the level of 63-65%.
According to specialists' calculations, thanks to the introduction of efficient energy-saving technologies in Russia, an annual reduction in electricity consumption by 2010 by 112 billion kWh can be achieved.
Therefore, it is necessary to increase investments not in the production of electricity, but in energy-saving technologies, as well as in the use of new or alternative energy sources, which will make it possible to save energy resources in the country, especially mineral fuels, and will help reduce the negative impact on the environment.
2.2. Oil industry
Russia has enormous oil resources. The main oil regions are Western Siberia, the Volga-Ural region, the North Caucasus and the European North. Shelves in the European North and the Far East are especially promising.
Currently, the main area of the oil field is the Ural Federal District, where 284.1 million tons of oil were produced, i.e. deposits in this region account for 66% of oil produced in Russia. The main fields are located in the middle course of the Ob River - Samotlorskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Megionskoye, Aleksandrovskoye and others. The largest in Russia program-target territorial-production complex is being formed on the basis of oil and gas resources.
In the Volga-Ural region, the most significant oil resources are in Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, in the European North - in the Komi Republic, and in the North Caucasus - in the Chechen and Dagestan republics. There are oil resources in the Far East - on Sakhalin.
About 2/3 of all producing oil is developed by the most efficient flow method. A number of regions of the country are promising, especially on the continental shelf of the Barents and Okhotsk seas v Eastern Siberia.
To date, the exploration of oil fields in European regions of Russia and Western Siberia reaches 65-70%, while in Eastern Siberia and the Far East only by 6-8%, and the sea shelves are explored only by 1%. But it is these hard-to-reach regions that account for 50% of the forecast oil resources.
An extensive system of oil pipelines has been created, transporting oil from production areas to other regions, the CIS countries and Western Europe. The largest: Ust-Balyk - Kurgan - Almetyevsk; Nizhnevartovsk - Samara; Samara - Lisichansk; Shaim - Tyumen; Ust-Balyk - Omsk - Anzhero-Sudzhensk; Tuymazy - Omsk - Anzhero-Sudzhensk; Ust-Balyk - Omsk - Pavlodar - Chimkent; Alexandrovskoe - Anzhero-Sudzhensk; Tuymazy - Omsk - Novosibirsk - Krasnoyarsk - Angarsk; Almetyevsk - Samara - Bryansk - Mozyr - Poland, Germany, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia; Almetyevsk - Nizhny Novgorod - Ryazan - Moscow with branches Nizhny Novgorod - Yaroslavl - Kirishi, etc.
Prospective levels of oil production in Russia will be determined mainly by the following factors - the demand for liquid fuel and the level of world prices for it, the development of transport infrastructure, tax conditions, and scientific and technological achievements in exploration and development of deposits, as well as the quality of the explored resource base.
Prospective volumes of oil production in Russia will differ significantly depending on one or another variant of the country's socio-economic development for any dynamics of oil prices.
The strategic objectives for the development of the industry remain: ensuring production with the necessary structure of reserves and their regional deployment; possibly a smoother and more gradual increase in production without a premature decline, with the stabilization of the achieved level of production for the longest possible period; taking into account the interests of future generations of Russians.
Oil production will be carried out and developed in Russia until 2010 as in traditional oil-producing regions - Western Siberia, the Volga region, North Caucasus and in new oil and gas provinces- in the European North (Timan-Pechora region), in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, in the south of Russia (North Caspian province).
The main oil base of the country remains the West Siberian oil and gas province. In the Volga-Ural province in the North Caucasus, oil production will decline, which is due to the depletion of the raw material base.
Under favorable conditions for economic development, new centers of the oil industry will be formed in Eastern Siberia and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), on the shelf of Sakhalin Island, in the Barents Sea, Russian sector the Caspian Sea. Oil production will increase in the Timan-Pechora province.
Ensuring the planned production levels and increasing the efficiency of oil production will be based on scientific and technological progress in the industry, improving drilling methods, stimulating the reservoir, increasing the depth of recovery of reserves and the introduction of other advanced technologies for producing neti, which will make it economically feasible to use hard-to-recover oil reserves.
2.3. Refining industry
It is cheaper to transport crude oil through pipelines to consumption areas than to transport oil products. Therefore, many oil refineries are located in consumption areas, as well as on the routes of oil pipelines in large cities and on river routes along which oil is transported. The main oil refining centers are Moscow, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl Kirishi, Saratov, Syzran, Samara, Volgograd, Ufa, Perm, Orsk, Omsk, Angarsk, Achinsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Khabarovsk, Grozny. Large petrochemical complexes have been created in the country - Tobolsk, Tomsk, Nizhnekamsk.
The oil will be mainly used for the production of motor fuels and as a chemical feedstock. Projects are being considered under the terms of a joint agreement on the production and transportation of oil from Siberia to the countries of Northeast Asia.
To ensure the promising levels of Russia's domestic demand for petroleum products and their export, it is envisaged to develop the oil refining industry and, first of all, on the basis of increasing the efficiency of the use of petroleum raw materials. The priority will be to consistently improve the quality of motor fuels in accordance with the change in the transport fleet, while maintaining the technologically justified use of fuel oil as a backup fuel at thermal power plants, unconditionally meeting the needs of the country's defense capability.
The development of the transport infrastructure of the Russian oil complex is determined by the following main goals:
· The desire to create our own oil terminals for offshore oil supplies to traditional and new export destinations;
· The feasibility of creating new directions for the export of Russian oil and oil products, including bypassing the customs territory of neighboring states;
· The need to have a sufficient reserve of oil transportation capacities in the world markets;
· The need to expand the most efficient oil pipeline transport.
To reduce the country's dependence on the tariff policy of transit states, create new and develop existing export directions, increase the transit of oil from the CIS countries through the territory of Russia and reduce transport costs Russian companies it is advisable to provide state support for export-oriented projects bypassing the territory of transit states.
The oil industry includes 13 large vertically integrated oil companies producing 87.7% of the country's oil, and 113 small companies with a production volume of 9.2%, respectively. More than 3% of crude oil production is carried out by OJSC Gazprom.
The companies operate 28 oil refineries with a total primary processing capacity of 296 million tons per year, with a 57% load. There are 6 factories for the production of lubricants and 2 factories for processing oil shale. Mainline transportation of oil and oil products is carried out by AK "Transneft" and AK "Transnefteproduct", respectively. Oil transportation is classified by Russian legislation as a natural monopoly.
2.4. Gas industry
The gas industry is the youngest and most efficient branch of the fuel and energy complex. In 2005. gas production amounted to 638 billion cubic meters. The main fields are located in Western Siberia, where three large gas-bearing areas are distinguished:
1. Tazovo-Purpeyskaya (the main deposits are Urengoyskoye, Yamburskoye, Nadym, Medvezhye, Tazovskoye);
2. Berezovskaya (deposits - Pakhromskoye, Igrimskoye, Punginskoye);
3. Vasyuganskaya (deposits - Luginetskoye, Myldzhinskoye, Ust-Silginskoye)
In the Volga-Ural province, gas resources are concentrated in the Orenburg, Saratov, Astrakhan regions, in the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. The Timan-Pechora province has the most significant Vuktylskoye field in the Komi Republic. New large gas resources have been discovered, and their exploitation has begun on the continental shelf of the Barents and Kara seas and in the Irkutsk region.
Dagestan, Stavropol and Krasnodar Territories have gas resources in the North Caucasus. A number of gas fields were discovered in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in the Vilyui river basin. On the basis of gas resources, large gas production complexes are being formed in Western Siberia, the Timan-Pechora province, in the Orenburg and Astrakhan regions. Natural gas is highly efficient compared to other fuels, and long-distance pipeline construction pays off quickly.
Oil production and processing and gas transportation are carried out mainly by OJSC Gazprom, the world's leading gas company. It produces 94% of Russian gas and provides 100% of its exports.
The 42 subsidiaries of OAO Gazprom have 8 enterprises and 17 transport enterprises. The length of the main gas pipelines in Russia is 151 thousand km, the number of compressor stations is 250 pcs. with a total capacity of 40 million kW. There are 21 underground gas storage facilities and 6 gas processing plants. The length of gas distribution networks is 378 thousand km. Gas transportation is classified by Russian legislation as a natural monopoly.
Main gas pipelines: Saratov - Moscow, Saratov - Nizhny Novgorod - Vladimir - Yaroslavl - Cherepovets; Minnibaevo - Kazan - Nizhny Novgorod; Orenburg - Samara - Togliatti; Stavropol - Nevinnomysk - Grozny; Ordzhonikidze - Tbilisi; Magnitogorsk - Ishimbay - Shkapovo. But the main gas pipelines from western Siberia are of particular importance: Igrim - Serov; Bear - Nadym - Punga - Nizhnyaya Tura - Perm - Kazan - Nizhny Novgorod - Moscow; Punga - Vuktyl - Ukhta; Urengoy - Moscow; Urengoy - Gryazovets; Urengoy - Yelets; Urengoy - Petrovsk; Urengoy - Pomary - Uzhgorod. A gas pipeline has been built to European states from Yamburg, etc. Construction of a gas pipeline has begun from Yamal along the bottom of the Barents Sea to Central Europe. In the future, Russia will enter the gas market of Northeast Asia with China, Korea and Japan.
With a combination of favorable internal and external conditions and factors, gas production in Russia may amount to about 645-665 m³ in 2010.
By now, the basic fields in western Siberia, which provide the bulk of current production, have been largely depleted: Medvezhye - by 75.6%, Urengoyskoye - by 65.4%, Yamburgskoye - by 54.1%.
The main gas producing region of the country remains the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, where 72% of all Russia's reserves are concentrated, in particular the Nadym-Pur-Tazovsky region.
The strategic priority region for gas production in the long term will be the Yamal Peninsula, as well as the waters of the northern seas of Russia. Another major gas production area in the period from 2010-2020. will become eastern Siberia. Here, as well as in the adjacent regions of the Far East, gas production will develop on the basis of the development of the Kovykta gas condensate field in the Irkutsk region, the Chayadinskoye oil and gas condensate field in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), oil and gas condensate fields on Sakhalin.
Along with the development of large deposits, it is advisable to involve in the development the so-called "Small" gas fields, primarily in the European part of the country. According to available estimates, only in three regions - Ural, Povolzhsky and North-West, these fields can produce up to 8-10 billion cubic meters of gas annually.
Gasification of Russian regions will continue, including large industrial centers southern part of western and eastern Siberia, the Far East. Liquefied gas will keep an important place in the structure of fuel supply to the village and dispersed consumers, the consumption of which is projected to increase by 1.2-1.3 times.
In the gas industry, in order to improve the efficiency of its functioning, it is envisaged to implement major measures of scientific and technological progress associated with the use of advanced technologies for drilling, production, processing, and consumption of gas, improving the gas transmission system, increasing the energy efficiency of gas transportation, the size, storage systems of its reserves, and also technologies of liquefaction of gas for its transportation.
To supply gas to consumers and ensure transit, a significant development of gas transmission systems in Eastern Siberia and the Far East is required, their connection with the Unified Gas Supply System of Russia.
In order to reduce dependence on the tariff policy of transit states. Creation of new and development of existing export directions. To increase the transit of gas from the CIS countries through the territory of Russia and reduce the transport costs of Russian companies, it is advisable to provide state support for export-oriented projects bypassing the territory of transit countries, for example, the construction of the North European gas pipeline.
2.5. Coal industry
Russia ranks first in the world in terms of proven coal reserves. The best quality coals are found in the Kuznetsk and Pechora basins. Coal resources are distributed unevenly across the territory of Russia. Over 94% of all coal reserves are in the eastern regions of the country; while its main needs are in the European part.
The most important coal basin in Russia is the Kuznetsky one. It accounts for 40% of all production. Its balance reserves are 600 billion. T.; the thickness of the seams is from 6-14 m, and in some places it reaches 20-25 m. Kuzbass coals are distinguished by the highest ash content, high calorific value - up to 8.6 thousand kcal; significant resources of coking coal. Kuzbass holds one of the first places in the world in terms of reserves, quality of coal and thickness of seams.
The second large coal base is the Pechora Basin with reserves of 210 billion tons. Its coals differ high quality, have a calorific value of 4-7 thousand kcal, about a third of the Pechora coals is well coked.
To the coal basins republican significance includes the Kansk-Achinsk brown coal basin within the Krasnoyarsk Territory and the Kemerovo Region. Coal seams come to the surface and create conditions for open pit mining. The pool coals have a relatively low ash content - up to 8-16%, their calorific value is 2.8-4.6 thousand kcal; the thickness of the seams is enormous - from 14 to 70 m. The Kansk-Achinsk coals have the lowest production costs in Russia. They are used as energy fuel. The Kansk-Achinsk fuel and energy complex (KATEK) is being created here with large thermal power plants already operating and under construction.
Other regions of Russia also have coal resources. So, the Center is located near Moscow coal basin, in the Urals - Kizelovsky, Chelyabinsk, South Ural, in Siberia - Minusinsky, Cheremkhovsky, Ulughemsky, Tungusky. In the Far East - the South Yakutsk basin with high-quality coals, on the basis of which the TPK is formed, as well as the Bureinsky, Suchansky, Lensky basins. Sakhalin is also rich in coal. The eastern regions of Russia have great prospects for the development of the coal industry. However, coal mining is still underdeveloped here.
Coal in Russia is mined by open-pit and mine methods. Open pit mining now accounts for over 60% of the total production volume.
In the future, coal production will decline, primarily in European regions. In the Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk basins, some increase in coal production is expected due to the open method.
Prospective levels of coal production in Russia, first of all, are determined by the demand for it in the domestic market of the country, due to the level of technological and price competitiveness of coal with alternative energy resources in conditions of market saturation with fuel.
Under favorable conditions for development, coal production in Russia may amount to 300-335 million tons in 2010.
The coal industry has a sufficient volume of geological coal reserves and production potential to meet the challenges. Therefore, specific production volumes will be adjusted depending on the economic demand for solid fuels. Although the projected coal production levels are provided with proven reserves, this does not exclude the need for certain additional geological exploration work.
The coal industry has a coal production capacity of 337 million tons. per year, loaded by almost 74%, including at mines - 130 million tons. per year and at open-pit mines - 207 million tons. in year. The number of mines - 154 pcs., Open-pit mines - 75 pcs., Processing plants - 65 pcs. The total number of organizations in the industry is 562, including 507 joint-stock companies and 55 state-owned enterprises.
It is necessary to increase coal production, primarily in the Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk basins. Having the most favorable conditions for providing the country with high-quality and economical coal fuel and maintaining the value of coal production at the deposits of Eastern Siberia, Buryatia, Yakutia, the Far East, and in the European part of Russia - Eastern Donbass and Pechora as an important factor in the energy supply of fuel-deficient western regions country.
At the same time, the share of raw materials in industry has sharply increased and the share of high-tech industries has decreased, which most need cooperation, including with other industries (science, education, etc.)
Nevertheless, the fuel and energy complex of Russia, which lost more than a quarter of its capacities after the collapse of the USSR, was able to continue to uninterruptedly continue to perform the previous economic, production and technological functions, despite all the dramatic turns in the historical fate of Russia. This happened due to the huge margin of safety laid down in the creation of the domestic fuel and energy complex, the capabilities of state centralized grid systems of energy supply. Moreover, it was the energy sector that in the past years has borne the main burden of stabilizing the economy at a transitional stage of development to a modern market economy, a socially oriented state.
When they say that the energy sector of Russia is the basis, the engine, the pivotal structure of the Russian economy, in fact, they emphasize the moments without which the existence and survival of Russia as a state is unthinkable.
First of all, we are talking about the fuel and energy complex as a powerful source of budgetary funds or even a donor to the state treasury.
Secondly, its historically formed social mission is emphasized. In the concrete life of post-Soviet Russia, this is the ability, relying on energy resources and the financial capabilities of the fuel and energy complex, to mitigate the social consequences of market reforms.
Third, it is customary to talk about the relative stability of the fuel and energy complex in comparison with a number of other industrial sectors that are in a deep crisis. Currently, the fuel and energy complex is one of the stably operating industrial complexes of the Russian economy.
Fourthly, the energy sector of Russia is a factor of its energy security from energy shortages. Thanks to him, the energy independence and security of the country is ensured.
Fifth, finally, everyone who cares about the future of Russia sees in the fuel and energy complex or the energy sector (these are actually equivalent concepts) hope for a sustainable energy supply in the XXΙ century, especially in the context of all kinds of threats, risks, man-made disasters that abound in modern life. ...
Now Russia occupies a leading place only in terms of resource potential and production of primary energy resources: 1st place in gas production, 2nd place - in oil, 4th place - in electricity, 6th place - in coal production.
In terms of the consumption of primary energy resources per capita, despite the high energy intensity of the economy, Russia is increasingly lagging behind developed countries.
3. Problems and prospects for the development of the fuel and energy complex
The last decade has been marked by major structural changes in the fuel and energy complex, the destruction of previous organizational structures, established economic ties and the creation of new management structures, new production and economic relations.
At the same time, regional energy companies are exposed to various factors of uncertainty that lead to a shortfall in profits, and, consequently, to unstable development. These, first of all, include the restructuring of the energy sector, the results of the first stages of which not only did not bring the desired results, but even worsened the financial situation of companies. As a result, all forces and resources of regional energy companies are directed towards their sustainable functioning. This leads to an increase in the cost of generating electricity and heat. At the same time, a problem arose related to building up production capacity to compensate for the removed old production capacity, which, in turn, requires huge costs.
Also, the factors constraining the development of the energy sector include:
· The continuing shortage of investment resources and their irrational use. With a high investment potential of the fuel and energy sector, the inflow of foreign investment in them is less than 13% of the total volume of financing of capital investments. At the same time, 95% of these investments are in the oil industry. In the electric power industry, conditions have not been created for the necessary investment reserve, as a result of which these sectors may become a brake on the incipient economic growth;
· Power equipment used in the energy sector is uneconomical. In the country there are practically no progressive steam and gas plants, waste gas treatment plants, renewable energy sources are used very little, the equipment of the coal industry is outdated and technically lagging behind, the potential of nuclear energy is underutilized;
· Lack of market infrastructure and a civilized, competitive energy market, this is due to the fact that the construction of TPPs was tied to specific industrial facilities, and transmission lines for part of the electric transmission to the side were not provided;
Necessary transparency is not provided economic activity subjects of natural monopolies, which negatively affects the quality of state regulation of their activities and the development of competition;
· Continuing high pressure on the environment from fuel and energy activities. TPPs are the main air pollutants in the fuel and energy complex, especially those that run on coal. Today when signed and ratified The Russian Federation Kyoto Protocol, this problem of energy companies is becoming one of the most urgent;
· Lack of developed and stable legislation that fully takes into account the specifics of the functioning of fuel and energy enterprises.
Taking into account the decisive role of the fuel and energy complex in the economy of our country, the restoration of the fuel and energy complex, including its positions in the world market, is becoming a priority state task.
The severity of problems in the development of the fuel and energy complex will largely be determined by the ratio of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of economic growth. The exhaustion of many extensive factors that have been in effect for decades necessitates a transition to a qualitatively new type of economic growth. Its main distinctive features are:
Global technological revolution
Transition from a resource-absorbing model of economic development to a science-based one
Increasing the productivity of using all factors of social production
Increasing the well-being of the population not so much by increasing the amount of material and spiritual benefits as by increasing their quality,
· Inclusion of a healthy environment in the concept of well-being.
The fuel and energy complex for many states is a kind of locomotive of the economy, helping not only to stay “afloat”, but also to achieve certain progress. However, if you do not invest in the fuel and energy complex, then gradually the efficiency of its activities will decline. This is especially true of the oil sector, which can quickly "perish" without investment, and its resurrection is a long and extremely costly process.
In connection with the instability of the legal framework of economic activity in Russia and for a number of other reasons, the investment attractiveness of the fuel and energy complex for domestic and foreign investors has decreased, although the demand for them has grown many times over. In the context of a significant increase in the cost of mining and production of fuel and energy resources, the need for a sharp increase in capital investments in the fuel and energy complex and tightening of environmental requirements, the strategic importance of increasing the energy efficiency of the economy as an important tool for meeting the energy needs of society has increased.
It is necessary to develop and implement by the state measures to stimulate investment in the oil industry, including the oil refining industry, including the expansion of the system of production sharing agreements (PSA), especially in the field of risky business.
The main feature and task of the oil refining industry is to increase the depth of oil refining from 70% at present to 85%. This will make it possible, with an increase in oil refining by 20%, to increase the production of motor fuels by 1.7 times with a simultaneous decrease in the production of fuel oil by 1.8 times, which will affect the fuel balance of the electric power industry.
In the gas industry, economic changes associated with the prospective state of the raw material base of the industry and its fixed assets manifest themselves even more sharply than in the oil sector. Basic gas fields in Western Siberia have been significantly depleted (Medvezhye - by 78%, Urengoyskoye - by 67%, Yamburgskoye - by 46%) and entered a phase of declining production. New discovered fields (Yamalskoye and Zapolyarnoye in Western Siberia, on the shelves of the Okhotsk and Barents Seas, Kovyktinskoe in Eastern Siberia, etc.) are several times more expensive than those in operation, and by 2020 more than 80% of the gas in the country should be produced. In addition, the state of the existing fixed assets of the industry, the depreciation of which has exceeded 60%, requires large investments for their renewal, maintenance and modernization. At the same time, the tough and economically unjustified artificial containment of gas prices regulated by the state does not allow the formation of investment sources that provide even a simple reproduction of fixed assets.
Taking into account the above, it is necessary to ensure a rapid increase in investments in the gas industry up to 11-12 billion dollars in 2020. In combination with rising transportation costs, it is objectively necessary to sharply raise gas prices. Calculations have shown that such an increase in gas prices will lead to a corresponding increase in electricity prices in addition to their objectively necessary increase for the formation of investments, which will negatively affect the competitiveness of domestic producers and the inflationary environment. However, the implementation of such a pricing state policy in the gas sector and in the electric power industry is objectively necessary, since without the adoption of these measures, the country will not be provided with the necessary energy resources.
The coal industry has a sufficient base to fully meet the needs of the Russian economy, but its development is complicated by a number of factors.
Firstly, these are restrictions on the use of coal for environmental reasons, and secondly, in terms of the volume of transportation by rail.
It is fundamentally important that, in contrast to the rapidly rising price of gas, coal prices should increase by 2010 by only 10-15%, followed by their stabilization and some decrease (excluding inflation). This can happen as a result of the involvement of more efficient coal reserves in the extraction, improvement of the economic organization of the industry and, most importantly, the introduction of the latest scientific and technical developments in the extraction, processing and transportation of coal. A decrease in the cost of coal production is envisaged in the period 2010-2030, which serves as an important argument for increasing its role in the country's fuel balance.
The specificity of the development of the Russian fuel and energy complex is due to a number of factors. Firstly, it is a climatic, natural and geographical factor: Russia is the coldest country in the world, almost half of its territory is in the permafrost zone. Secondly, the centers of consumption are removed from the energy bases. Thirdly, access to non-freezing ports is limited. Fourthly, transport and energy communications, being very long, have limited reserves of their carrying capacity.
These factors, in many ways indirectly, through the influence of the fuel and energy complex, predetermine the specifics of the development of the entire economy. Due to the special role of the Russian energy sector in the global division of labor at the end XX- beginning XXΙ centuries, the processes taking place in it will affect not only the domestic, but also the economies of foreign countries.
Despite a number of objective difficulties, the fuel and energy complex mainly meets the country's needs for fuel and energy and fully controls the Russian energy market. This situation is determined not only by the quality of the complex functioning, but also by a decrease in domestic demand for fuel and energy, which during the years of reforms amounted to 30.3% for primary energy resources and 23.7% for electricity, with a general drop in industrial production by more than 50%.
The Basic Provisions of Russia's Energy Strategy for the Period until 2020, approved by the Government of the Russian Federation, do not actually provide for a significant change in the structure of the country's fuel and energy balance, which is formed mainly on the basis of hydrocarbon raw materials (gas, oil) with a slight (2-3%) increase in the coal component. The reproduction of the raw material base is not carried out. At the same time, gas exports are forecast to grow by more than 20% with a slight decrease in the supply of oil and oil products abroad. By the beginning of the 20th century, exports of oil and petroleum products exceeded domestic consumption by 1.27 times, gas exports accounted for more than 50% of domestic consumption.
The long-term development strategy of the fuel and energy complex, up to 80% of the primary energy resources of which will be irreplaceable reserves of gas and oil, in the future poses a real threat to the energy security of Russia.
When forming options for the development of the state's fuel and energy complex for the medium and long term, for their comparative assessment, it is important to fully take into account the possibilities of implementing various strategic threats to energy security and the requirements for the reliability of fuel and energy supply to the country's consumers in the current plan, and especially for emergencies. Energy security is understood as the state of protection of citizens and the economy of the state from threats of deficiency in meeting their needs with economically affordable fuel and energy resources of acceptable quality in the long term and current plan, including during emergencies. Strategic threats are real threats that, when implemented, lead to a long-term shortage of fuel and energy resources, which leads to restraint of economic growth and a deterioration in the socio-economic situation of the country. Such threats for Russia in the next 10-15 years can be considered a lack of investment for the development of the fuel and energy complex, a decrease in annual gas production in the country, an unacceptably low rate of replacement of aging fixed assets and a decrease in the specific energy intensity of GDP. The main factors that determine the level of energy security of the state are:
· The ability of the economy and the fuel and energy complex to carry out an uninterrupted supply of energy resources in sufficient volume, creating energy prerequisites for the stable functioning and development of the economy and maintaining the required standard of living of the population;
· The ability of consumers to use energy efficiently;
· Balancing the supply of fuel and energy resources and the demand for them, taking into account the economically justified volumes of import and export of fuel and energy resources;
· Socio-political, legal, economic and international conditions for the development of the fuel and energy complex industries and increasing the efficiency of the use of fuel and energy resources for their consumers.
The reforms of the Russian economy are based on the ideology of liberalization. The trigger for the liberalization process was the "shock therapy" scenario that began in the 1990s, which was aimed at limiting the state's share in the economy. The next stage in the process of reforming the Russian economy is the liberalization of the energy and gas markets.
The system of energy and gas supply in Russia is the fundamental elements of the national economy, on the reliable and efficient functioning of which its normal operation and the life of all citizens of Russia directly depend. The state of the electric power industry largely determines the level and efficiency of the economy of any country.
The gas and power industries are the backbone of the Russian economy. Their scale is striking - Russia has about 1/3 of the world's natural gas reserves (most of which are concentrated in the 20 largest gas fields), and currently supply about a quarter of all gas to the world market.
Thus, in terms of its scale, the Russian electric power industry is the largest in the world, and in the production of electricity, Russia is second only to the United States. Tax payments from the gas and electricity industries account for approximately 30% of all federal revenues of the country, and 20% of all export revenues came from the export of natural gas. The share of gas in the total production and domestic consumption of energy resources is about 50%, in the structure of fuel exports from Russia - 45-46%. The gas industry accounts for 8% of the GDP. In Russia, the gas industry and the electric power industry are closely interconnected not only as sources of potentially interchangeable resources, but also due to the fact that almost 40% of domestic gas consumption is accounted for by electricity generation.
Experts point out that economic development the country continues to be extensive, which is at odds with the main trends in the evolution of the world economy. Of course, here the "world economy" means mainly the economies of highly developed countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. External factors still play a large role in the Russian economy - the conjuncture of world markets and prices, the dynamics of exchange rates, etc. innovation activity remains weak, the manufacturability of production does not grow, and fixed assets are physically and morally aging.
For all major economic performance(structure of BBB, structure of industry, exports, the degree of dependence of the budget on world prices in the markets of energy resources, etc.) Russia belongs to the countries with a raw material economy. In the last decade, the role of the raw materials industries has increased even more, and the problem of restructuring the economy has become aggravated.
All structural transformations in the economy should be viewed from the standpoint of the simultaneous rise and development of both raw materials and processing industries, as well as knowledge-intensive and high-tech industries, with the only difference that the growth rates of priority industries should be higher.
Thus, at present, the task of overcoming the systemic economic crisis in Russia is not only to transfer the economy to the trajectory of competitiveness, but also to change economic growth. An important role here belongs to the scientific and industrial policy of the state, which determines the general economic strategy, the most promising development base.
It must be borne in mind that the priority development of the raw material industries, which have now become leading in Russian economy, is not able to solve the problem of economic recovery for a long time. The raw materials industries are the basis of the industrial economy of Russia, giving it special stability, but not its main driving force, and these two concepts cannot be substituted (for example, in Japan there is practically no raw material base, but there is an effective economy). Moreover, the potential of this driving force, irreplaceable by its nature, is steadily dwindling (oil, for example, has only 50 years left)
For 10-15 years in the economically highly developed countries of the world, there has been a steady tendency to reduce the material component in the cost of products and services (only 10-15%) and increase the share of costs for acquiring knowledge and information.
Russia, according to some estimates, has 28% of the world's reserves mineral resources and by 2015 will double their internal consumption and external supplies. Development on this basis will lead to some growth in GDP, but there will be no radical improvement in living standards - according to this indicator per capita, Russia now lags dozens of times behind the highly developed countries. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the strong competition and high saturation of the world market for oil and gas raw materials, which brings the main foreign exchange income, as well as (due mainly to geographical and climatic reasons) the extremely high capital intensity of domestic raw materials industries and the cost of their products. For example, the threshold for non-negative profitable Russian oil is 2.5 times or more higher than that of the OPEC countries. In addition to the geographical and climatic conditions of development, there is an additional group of factors that have a negative impact on the competitiveness of Russian oil and gas exports:
· High level of transport tariffs and costs,
High level of taxation
· High cost of exploration and field development, etc.
Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that the low competitiveness of enterprises of the fuel and energy complex of Russia has become one of the main crisis-forming factors in the Russian economy, in connection with which it is necessary to adjust further reforms in the energy sector, taking into account the aspects of ensuring an increase in competitiveness within the framework of the priority of federal state interests.
Prospects for the development of the fuel and energy complex
for the period up to 2030. (developed by INP RAS)
The fuel and energy complex of Russia is characterized by a number of features that seriously affect the scale and structure of energy consumption, the economy of energy production and prices on the domestic market. The most significant factors include:
· Continuing population decline with increasing complexity of demographic characteristics;
· A large territory of the country, which makes the transport component largely determines the efficiency of energy use by domestic consumers. At the same time, ensuring the reliability of export relations is a serious factor in strengthening national energy security;
· Russia is the coldest country in the world. Therefore, reliable provision of the country's thermal needs is a significant factor in the formation of the energy balance of the country and its regions;
· Preservation of the outdated technical and technological composition and structure of the energy complex (especially in terms of its domestic monopolies), formed in a different, non-market economic environment;
· Low reliability, high costs for maintenance and maintenance of outdated technologies and worn-out equipment, including power equipment;
· Stable disparity in fuel and energy prices that do not meet market conditions and differ from the level and structure of prices on the world market;
· Preservation of the possibility of the formation of dangerous hotbeds of internal social tension, if the supply of energy and its prices are linked to the income of the population;
· Great dependence of the national economy on the energy complex as a supplier of fuel and energy - one of the main sources of tax and foreign exchange earnings.
These features determine the following target settings for substantiating the prospects for long-term development of the country's fuel and energy complex for the period up to 2030:
· Meeting the country's internal needs for energy resources is the main task of the fuel and energy complex throughout the entire forecasting period;
· Market factors are decisive when choosing technologies for the extraction, production, transport and use of energy resources;
· Ensuring the safety and reliability of energy supplies is a promising task;
· The role of electrification of the country as the most significant factor in the growth of labor productivity and ensuring the energy comfort of the population is increasing;
· The role of state regulation for the protection of the environment and safety of work and life of people is increasing;
· The energy intensity of the gross domestic product should decrease due to a change in the structure of production towards industries with higher added value and lower energy intensity, the development of innovative and energy-saving technologies.
4. Fuel and energy complex and the environment
Our country, as you know, plays an important role in ensuring global energy security. But our foreign partners often care only about the interests of countries - consumers of energy resources, interested in their stable supplies from Russia. And this approach, which does not take into account the interests of sustainable development and environmental safety of our country, cannot be shared by the state. 2006 was declared by the world community as the Year of Global Energy Security. Energy development issues were at the center of the discussion at the Summit of the heads of eight leading states of the world in St. Petersburg.
Meanwhile, the ecological state of the domestic fuel and energy complex, primarily in its resource base, already raises serious concerns today. Of course, this concerns not only the pollution of the environment during the production itself, as well as the transportation of fuel, but also sometimes just the predatory attitude of the mining companies towards the fields being developed.
Table 2: Air emissions of pollutants
For example, at our oil fields, the recoverability of fuel is significantly lower than at foreign ones - for entrepreneurs it is often more economically profitable to move to the next well after extracting "easy production" than to increase the specific oil recovery. Therefore, proceeding from state interests, it is important to increase the efficiency of the use of deposits, which is all the more important since geological exploration has been curtailed in recent years - not a single new large mineral deposit has been discovered over the past 10-15 years.
Extraction of energy resources is also associated with the production of a large amount of waste, which additionally pollutes the environment. So, when 1 ton of oil is extracted, more than 1 ton of waste is "produced", and when 1 ton of coal is extracted - at least 6 ton. In addition, when extracting the same oil, a large amount of associated gas is completely uselessly burned in flares.
The solution to these problems can be achieved only through the introduction of new, more advanced technologies that can significantly reduce the negative impact on the environment. The development of innovative activities requires, in turn, an appropriate legislative framework. It is necessary to create a legislative mechanism for stimulating innovation, attracting investment in knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy, including energy. We still have the necessary scientific base, including in the military-industrial complex - suffice it to mention, for example, gas turbine CHPPs and efficient wind power plants developed at our aircraft factories.
Work in this area concentrates on several areas:
· Natural resource support of the country's fuel and energy complex and energy supplies for export;
· Ensuring the functional safety of the fuel and energy complex by creating a legal framework for technical regulation; including the development of a legal framework for the environmentally safe development of nuclear energy;
· Legal regulation of energy saving and improving the overall energy efficiency of the economy on the basis of innovative activities, including the development of the use of renewable energy resources.
It is believed that the improvement of tax legislation should continue. In particular, it is advisable to make the tax on the extraction of mineral resources differentiated. Deposits should become the object of taxation. Subsequently, the issue of stimulating the development of the Russian oil and gas engineering industry by reducing the taxable base of domestic oil and gas producing companies by the amount of funds allocated by them for the development and purchase of domestic machinery and equipment for production can also be considered.
The rights of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of subsoil use need to be expanded, in particular, the principle of "two keys" deserves legal formalization. A major problem is deposits at the stage of declining production - for large companies working with them becomes unprofitable.
This is all the more relevant in light of the progressive shortage of energy resources for domestic consumption, primarily in the electric power industry. It is necessary to build a policy of global leadership in ensuring energy security based on the interests of increasing the production of processed products of primary energy resources for domestic consumption. The solution of these problems is based on the path of the outstripping growth in the volume of energy construction and the revival of domestic power engineering, which is impossible without the regulatory (stimulating) role of the state.
The problems of improving the environmental situation in the fuel and energy complex are closely linked with the tasks of increasing the energy efficiency of our entire economy, reducing the energy intensity of our products. The introduction of energy-saving equipment and technologies will make it possible not only to reduce, but also by reducing the mass of fuel burned, significantly reduce the burden on the environment.
There are also specific problems of intellectual property in the fuel and energy sector. A major legal problem, for example, is the issue of ownership of geological information about deposits, including that obtained through surveys carried out at the expense of private investors. Proposals are being prepared for the further development of legislation and the conduct of an important economic and legal experiment to test new organizational and technological solutions that will improve the technical and economic efficiency of fuel and energy enterprises and their environmental safety.
Conclusion
The fuel and energy complex is the most important subsystem of the region's economy, which has a strong influence on the rate of its growth, on the efficiency of development of consumer industries, energy resources, on the labor balance of the territory, on the level and quality of life of the population, on income and expenses of the regional budget, etc. ...
The fuel and energy complex includes the oil, gas, coal industry and electric power industry. The sectors of the fuel and energy complex are closely related to all sectors of the Russian economy.
Currently, a serious problem of the fuel and energy complex is non-payment for fuel and energy. The central problem is the inconsistency of technical and technological features and state of the art Fuel and energy complex and infrastructural industries the task of reducing the cost of energy in market conditions. The necessary constant rise in the cost of energy and the growth of technological and economic risks are not so much the result of the creation of market relations in the fuel and energy sector, but rather the result of underestimating the real consequences in the social sphere and the economy as a whole from hasty reformatory actions.
The fuel and energy complex is of great regional importance. It creates the prerequisites for the development of fuel-intensive industries and serves as the basis for the formation industrial complexes, including electric power, petrochemical, coal chemical, gas industry. The state and technical level of the operating capacities of the fuel and energy complex are now becoming critical. More than half of the equipment in the coal industry, 40% of gas pumping units have exhausted their design service life, half of the equipment in the oil industry and more than 40% in the gas industry has more than 60% wear and tear. Deterioration of equipment in oil refining and power engineering is especially great.
The most important task for the further development of the fuel and energy industry in the conditions of the formation and development of market relations is the implementation of measures for the protection of nature and rational use of natural resources. In the oil and gas industry, this is an increase in oil recovery, more complete extraction of oil from the depths, utilization of associated gases. Since the oil industry is a large consumer of water, the task is to reduce the consumption of clean fresh water, introduce recycling water supply, and stop the discharge of polluted water into water bodies. The tasks of more economical use are set land resources for oil and gas production and oil refineries. In the coal industry, the most important environmental task is land reclamation, since with open-pit mining, which will increase in the future, significant areas of land are disturbed. As a result of mining, the soil layer above the mines and adits is deformed. When burning coal, a prerequisite is the creation of powerful filters to clean the air from polluting emissions.
The environmental policy in the fuel and energy complex should be aimed at reducing the technogenic impact on the environment, since now it accounts for about 48% of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere, 36% of wastewater and over 30% of solid waste from all pollutants.
Anti-crisis measures in the sectors of the fuel and energy complex in the coming years suggest: restore the pre-crisis level and increase gas production in the developed regions; expand the capacity of gas pipelines and build a new export gas pipeline from Yamal to Central Europe; slow down the decline in oil and condensate production, carry out work on the reconstruction of the oil refining industry with an increase in the depth of oil refining up to 67%; to stop the decline in coal production during the restructuring towards an increase in open-pit mining in the eastern regions of the country.
Particularly important is the task of forming a fuel and energy market controlled by the state with the help of price and tax policies, creating a competitive environment and attracting foreign investment.
The regional strategy of Russia in the fuel and energy complex is aimed at developing market relations and maximizing energy supply to each region independently. The prospects for the development of the branches of the fuel and energy complex imply the implementation of an energy-saving policy, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, and the accelerated development of the gas industry.
As a result of the implementation of the energy strategy as one of the stages of the long-term state energy policy, an efficiently developing fuel and energy complex and a competitive energy market will emerge in Russia, meeting the needs of the growing economy in energy resources and integrating into the world energy markets. ...
di land holdings. i land, since with open-pit mining, which will increase in the future, significant
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Modern industry is distinguished by the complexity of the composition of industries and industries and the connections between them. In it, first of all, stand out: the fuel industry, which extracts primary energy carriers (coal, oil, gas, etc.), and the electric power industry; ferrous, non-ferrous metallurgy and chemical industry directly related to the use of products of its extractive industries (primary materials and energy resources, etc.); mechanical engineering, which receives construction materials from the branches of the previous group and some other industries; easy and food industry engaged in the processing of mainly agricultural raw materials.
9.1. Geography of the world fuel industry.
Fuel and energy balance, ways to optimize its structure. There are three main stages in the development of the world's fuel and energy industry: coal, oil and gas, and modern.
V late XIX and the beginning of the XX century. in industrial energy and international trade in fuel, coal dominated. Back in 1948, the share of coal in the total consumption of the main sources of energy was 60%. But in the 50-60s. The structure of energy resources consumption has changed significantly, oil came out on top - 51%, the share of coal decreased to 23%, natural gas - 21.5%, hydropower - 3%, nuclear energy - 1.5%.
Such changes in the structure of energy resources consumption were due to the widespread development of new large sources of oil and natural gas; a number of advantages of these types of fuel over solid fuels (high efficiency of production, transportation, consumption); the scale of the use of oil and natural gas not only as fuel, but also as an industrial raw material increased.
However, since the 80s. as a priority, a direction is put forward that provides for the transition from the use of predominantly exhaustible resources to the use of inexhaustible, unconventional energy sources (wind, solar, ebb and flow, nuclear energy, geothermal sources, hydro resources, etc.).
As a result, the share of oil in total consumption and production of energy resources began to decline (to 38% in 2000), the value of the angle increases again (31%), and natural gas has strengthened its position (23.5%). The increase in the use of hydropower, nuclear and other (alternative) energy sources is becoming more and more noticeable.
Oil industry. In the modern economy, oil and oil products are widely used both for energy purposes and as chemical raw materials. The average annual oil production is 3.3-3.4 billion tons.
The leading role in world oil production (43% of all production) is played by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which includes Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Indonesia, Venezuela.
The role of the CIS countries, primarily Russia, Azerbaijan ( Absheron peninsula, shelf and bottom of the Caspian Sea), Turkmenistan (fields in the region of Uzboy), Kazakhstan (fields Tengiz, Karachaganak, Mangyshlak peninsula, Ural-Emba basin).
Outside of these groupings, oil production in North America (USA, Canada, Mexico), in the North Sea on the shelf of Great Britain and Norway, in China and South-East Asia(Bahrain, Malaysia, etc.).
Top ten largest manufacturers oil is formed by Saudi Arabia (410 million tons), the United States (325), Russia (300), Iran (185), Norway (155), China (155), Venezuela (150), Mexico (145), the United Arab Emirates and the United Kingdom (about 100 million tons).
About half of all oil produced is exported. In addition to the OPEC member countries, whose share in world oil exports is 65%, its largest suppliers to the world market are also Russia, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. Iraq, which for a long time was one of the largest producers and exporters of oil, has been temporarily deprived of the right to supply it to the world market,
Large quantities of oil are imported by the United States (up to 250 million tons), Japan, China and European countries (France, Germany, the Netherlands, etc.).
The world's oil refining industry is largely focused on the main consumers of oil and oil products - developed countries (they concentrate more than 60% of its capacities). The share of the USA (21% of the world's refinery capacities), Western Europe (20%), Russia (17%), Japan (6%) is especially large.
Gas industry. Natural gas, just like oil, is used as a fuel and as a raw material for the chemical industry. The presence of significant proven reserves of natural gas, the cheapness of its production, transportation and use contribute to the development of the industry. World production of natural gas is constantly growing and in 1997 amounted to 2.2 trillion cubic meters. In terms of natural gas production, Russia (570 billion cubic meters), the United States (540) and Canada (155) stand out sharply, accounting for more than half of its world total. Then there are countries with an annual production of 90 to 30 billion cubic meters. m - the Netherlands, Great Britain, Indonesia, Algeria, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Australia.
The world's largest natural gas producers - Russia, the USA, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom - simultaneously consume large quantities of natural gas, therefore, in comparison with oil, the share of natural gas supplies for export is relatively small - only about 15% of the produced natural gas. Its largest exporters are Russia (about 30% of world exports), the Netherlands, Canada, Norway, Algeria. The United States, being one of the largest consumers of natural gas, uses not only its own, but also gas from other countries - Canada, Algeria, etc. Along with the United States, Japan and most of European countries import gas (especially in large quantities - Germany, France, Italy) ... Natural gas supplies for export are carried out via gas pipelines (from Canada and Mexico to the USA, from Russia and Turkmenistan to the CIS countries and Europe, from Norway and the Netherlands to Europe) or by sea transportation in liquefied form (from Indonesia to Japan, from Algeria to Western Europe and the USA).
The coal industry is very promising in the global energy supply (coal resources have not really been explored yet, their general geological reserves significantly exceed those of oil and natural gas). Modern world production coal is at the level of 4.5-5 billion tons. Among the main coal-mining countries are representatives of almost all regions of the world. The exception is the coal-poor countries of Latin America, whose share in world coal production is extremely small. The largest coal mines in the world are China (1,160 million tons), the USA (930), Germany (270), Russia (245), India (240), Australia, Poland, South Africa (about 200 million tons each), Kazakhstan, Ukraine (approximately 100 million tons). The largest coal basins in the world in terms of production are the Appalachian (USA), Ruhr (Germany), Upper Silesian (Poland), Donetsk (Ukraine), Kuznetsk and Pechora (Russia), Karaganda (Kazakhstan), Fushun (China). Coal mining by the open-cut method is efficient - USA, Australia, South Africa.
About a tenth of the world's coal production (mainly coking) is exported annually. Largest exporters coal - Australia, USA, South Africa, Poland, Canada, Russia. The main importers are Japan, South Korea, Italy, Germany, Great Britain. Australia supplies coal mainly to Japan and South Korea. The USA and South Africa work for the European and Latin American markets. The spread of Russian coal (Pechora and Kuznetsk basins) abroad is limited by its weak competitiveness (due to the high cost of production, remoteness from the main consumers, etc.) with local and imported fuel from other countries.
9.2. Electric power industry of the world.
World production of electricity is approximately 13.5 trillion kWh, Most of the world's electricity production comes from a small group of countries, among which are the United States (3600 billion kWh), Japan (930), China (900), Russia (845), Canada , Germany, France (about 500 billion kWh). The gap in electricity production between developed and developing countries is large: developed countries account for about 65% of all generation, developing countries - 22%, countries with economies in transition - 13%.
In general, in the world more than 60% of all electricity is generated at thermal power plants (TPP), about 20% - at hydroelectric power plants (HPP), about 17% - at nuclear power plants (NPP) and about 1% - at geothermal, tidal, solar, wind power plants. However, in this respect, there are large differences across the world. For example, in Norway, Brazil, Canada and New Zealand, almost all electricity is generated by hydropower plants. In Poland, the Netherlands and South Africa, on the contrary, almost all electricity generation is provided by thermal power plants, and in France, Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, Finland, and the Republic of Korea, the electricity industry is mainly based on nuclear power plants.
The main advantages of hydroelectric power plant operation are low cost, ecological cleanliness of production, renewability of the resources used. Significant disadvantages - long terms construction and recoupment of capital costs.
In general, in the world and in its individual regions (especially in Africa, Latin America and Asia), the possibilities for the development of hydropower are far from being exhausted. However, the share of hydroelectric power plants in the world's electric power industry is decreasing due to the faster growth rates of TPP and NPP capacity.
The main advantages of TPPs (in comparison with hydroelectric power plants) are relatively short construction times, stability of work. A positive property of nuclear power plants, in comparison with thermal power plants operating on mineral fuel, and hydroelectric power plants, is the freedom of location. This, first of all, explains the high level of development of nuclear energy in countries experiencing a deficit in mineral fuel (France, Sweden, Finland, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, etc.). The USA is the leader among the countries of the world in terms of the total capacity of nuclear power plants. The development of the nuclear power industry in many countries of the world is constrained by the fear of possible nuclear disasters, a lack of capital (the construction of a nuclear power plant is a very capital-intensive business). Therefore, the share of nuclear power plants, like thermal power plants, is especially large in the group of industrialized countries of the world.
9.3. Ferrous metallurgy of the world.
Ferrous metallurgy includes the extraction and preparation (enrichment, etc.) of raw materials, the production of pig iron, steel, rolled products and ferroalloys.
Depending on the completeness of the completeness of the main cycle (smelting of iron, steel and rolled products) in the composition of ferrous metallurgy, metallurgical plants(including all three redistributions), enterprises of conversion (without iron smelting) and small (shop) metallurgy. Enterprises with electrothermal production of steel and ferroalloys are especially distinguished.
Iron, manganese and chromium ores are used as raw materials for ferrous metallurgy.
In general, about 1 billion tons of iron ore is mined annually in the world, of which more than half of the world's production falls on three countries - China (23%), Brazil (17%) and Australia (13%). Iron ore production in these countries is growing rapidly. A lot iron ore Russia, Ukraine, USA, India, Canada, Venezuela, France, Kazakhstan and others are also mined. Its largest exporters are Brazil and Australia, providing about 60% of world exports. Many countries of the world, including those mining iron ore - the USA, Great Britain, Italy, China, etc., import it. The largest importers are Japan, Germany, and the Republic of Korea. Combines, despite certain structural changes that have taken place in the industry, remain the main type of ferrous metallurgy enterprises in most developed countries. Ferrous metallurgy full cycle It is characterized by a high material consumption of production, i.e., a high consumption of materials used in relation to the weight of the finished product. The consumption of iron ore is especially high, and somewhat less consumption of coking coal. For the smelting of 1 ton of pig iron, at least 1.5-2 tons of iron ore are consumed (the richer the ore is in iron, the less its consumption), from 1-1.2 tons of coking coal, and only 4-5 tons of raw materials and fuel. Concerning ideal places For the development of ferrous metallurgy, countries and regions rich in both iron and manganese ores and fuel have always been considered. For example, India, China, Kazakhstan, Australia, Donetsk-Pridneprovsky region of Ukraine are distinguished by a combination of resources of iron and manganese ores, coking coal. But such a favorable combination for ferrous metallurgy natural resources occurs infrequently, therefore many metallurgical regions and centers arose either near the development of iron ore (for example, in Lorraine in France, in the fields of the Great Lakes in the USA, in the Alps of Italy, in Sweden, Brazil), or in places of extraction coal(for example, the Ruhr region in Germany, Pennsylvania in the USA, Donbass in Ukraine, Kuzbass in Russia, etc.).
An additional and very large raw material base of ferrous metallurgy is made up of scrap metal resources (depreciation scrap, metallurgical waste, etc.). The excess of steel smelting over cast iron is associated with the processing of scrap metal; it is more profitable (cheaper) to immediately smelt steel from scrap, bypassing the blast-furnace (iron foundry) production.
With the accumulation of secondary raw materials in an increasing number of countries around the world, the primary stages of metallurgy (blast furnace production) have been replaced by the use of domestic or imported scrap metal. In the United States, almost half of steel is produced not from cast iron, but from scrap (mainly in new factories located in the West and South). Roughly the same situation in other developed countries, newly industrialized countries (especially Asian) and in Russia.
In addition to the old, traditional regions of ferrous metallurgy, which arose in individual countries of the world either on a combination of iron ore and coal, or separately on coal, iron ore or scrap metal replacing them, the industry, especially in last years developed very actively in the coastal areas. This option for the placement of ferrous metallurgy provides the opportunity for the supply of raw materials and fuel and the export of finished products by sea. Moreover, in many cases, the import of iron ore (or scrap) and coal is more profitable than the exploitation of local bases and deposits. For example, in Japan, almost all factories are located along the coast, which is very convenient for obtaining iron ore and coal by sea (iron ore to Japan is supplied by Australia, India, Brazil, and coal - by Australia and China). Large metallurgical plants have been established in the port cities of Italy (Naples, Genoa, Taranto), France (Marseille, Dunkirk), the USA (Baltimore, Philadelphia), China (Wuhan), Germany, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands and other countries. In all these cases, as in Japan, the location of metallurgy is determined by the focus on imported iron ore and coal (for European countries iron ore comes from Africa and Latin America, coal from the USA; for the United States, iron ore comes from Brazil, Venezuela and Canada).
China, Japan, USA, Russia, Germany, Republic of Korea, Brazil, England, France, Italy are leading in the world steel production (approximately 700-750 million tons). Steel production is a branch of specialization of the economy and a number of other countries - Australia, Canada, South Africa, Sweden, Austria, Spain, Ukraine, Poland, Benelux countries.
In the world steel production, the share of developing countries is constantly increasing (about 40% of steel is smelted), primarily new industrial ones (Republic of Korea, Brazil, India, Mexico, Argentina, etc.).
Steel production in the CIS countries, in particular in Russia, has sharply declined in recent years. Nevertheless, Russia is the largest supplier of ferrous metals to the world market (about 15% of world exports). Most of all imports of ferrous metals from the United States.
9.4. Non-ferrous metallurgy of the world.
Non-ferrous metallurgy includes the production of non-ferrous, noble, rare metals and their alloys.
By volume of production, aluminum smelting (more than 45% of the annual smelting of non-ferrous metals in the world), copper (25%), zinc ( 16% ) and lead (11%). The production of nickel, tin, magnesium, cobalt, tungsten, and molybdenum is significant.
Non-ferrous metallurgy is distinguished by some features that affect the placement.
1. High material consumption of production, which makes it unprofitable to separate processing from the places of extraction of raw materials.
The percentage of most non-ferrous metals in ores is small (usually from fractions of a percent to several percent), which predetermines the "linkage" of ore processing enterprises to the places where raw materials are mined.
2. High energy intensity of production, which makes the development of the industry efficient from sources of cheap fuel and electricity.
Since the production (smelting) of metals from enriched raw materials requires a lot of energy, the stages of enrichment and metallurgical processing in non-ferrous metallurgy often turn out to be territorially fragmented.
3. The complex nature of the raw materials used. Many non-ferrous metal ores are polymetallic in nature, that is, they contain several metals. For the purpose of their complete extraction (use) in non-ferrous metallurgy, production combination is effective.
4. Wide use in the production of secondary raw materials (in developed countries, 25-30% of copper and aluminum, up to 40-50% of lead are smelted from scrap). For this reason, the location of non-ferrous metallurgy industries is in many cases focused on the resources of secondary raw materials (scrap metal).
Different branches of metallurgy have their own peculiarities of placement.
The leading branch of non-ferrous metallurgy (in terms of production and use of products) in the modern world economy is the aluminum industry. Among other branches of non-ferrous metallurgy, this branch is distinguished by the greatest complexity of production. The first stage of aluminum production - the extraction of raw materials (bauxite, nepheline, alunite) - focuses on rich deposits. The second stage - the production of aluminum oxide (alumina) - being material-intensive and heat-intensive, tends, as a rule, to sources of raw materials and fuel. And, finally, the third stage - the electrolysis of aluminum oxide - focuses on sources of cheap electricity (large hydroelectric and thermal power plants).
The main raw material for the production of alumina is bauxite, the world production of which is about 150 million tons per year. The overwhelming part of the production and export of bauxite falls on Australia (almost a third of world production), Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, China, India, Russia, Suriname, Greece, Venezuela, Kazakhstan.
Most of the raw materials (about 2/3) are processed into alumina locally - in Australia, Brazil, Russia, Kazakhstan, etc. Part of the raw materials (about 1/3) is exported to countries where aluminum oxide is present main factor- availability of mineral fuel (local or supplied from outside), - USA, Canada, Ukraine, Ireland, Sardinia (Italy), etc.
The production of metallic aluminum has been predominantly developed in countries with large sources of cheap energy - large hydro resources and powerful hydroelectric power plants (USA, Russia, Canada, Brazil, Norway, etc.), rich in natural gas (Iraq, Bahrain, UAE, Netherlands, Great Britain, etc. .) or coal (Australia, India, China, etc.). In some old, traditional aluminum smelting centers (France, Austria, Hungary, etc.), where energy is expensive, its production has been greatly reduced and is gradually dying out.
The largest aluminum producers in the world are Russia, USA, Japan, Germany, Italy.
The copper industry in its location is mainly focused on copper resources (natural and secondary raw materials). The low metal content in copper concentrates (from 8 to 35%), the relatively low energy consumption of their processing (in comparison with aluminum smelting) make it profitable to locate copper production (smelting) in places where copper ores are mined and processed. Therefore, the places of mining and smelting of copper are often geographically combined. The main areas for copper mining are in North and Latin America (Chile, USA, Canada, Peru, Mexico), Africa (Zambia, Zaire), CIS (Russia, Kazakhstan), Asia (Japan, Indonesia, Philippines), Australia and Oceania (Australia , Papua New Guinea).
The main copper-producing countries are also distinguished in copper smelting, the leading place belongs to the USA, Chile, Japan, China, Canada, Russia. Part of the mined ore in the form of concentrates and blister copper is exported to other countries (from Papua and the Philippines to Japan, from Latin America to the USA, from Africa to Europe, from Russia and Kazakhstan to Europe and China). Almost 1/5 of the world's copper smelting is based on scrap metal resources. The copper-smelting industry in Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium and other countries produces only secondary metal.
Zinc and lead industries usually have a common resource base - polymetallic ores. Countries with the most large deposits polymetals (USA, Canada, Mexico, Peru in North and Latin America, Ireland and the Federal Republic of Germany in Europe, Russia and Kazakhstan in the CIS, China, Japan, Australia) are also distinguished by their extraction. In terms of lead and zinc smelting, the leading positions in the world are occupied by the economically developed countries of the world - the USA, Japan, Canada, Australia, Germany, France, Italy. China is a very large producer of lead and zinc. Russia is not among the top ten countries in the world production of zinc and lead.
For modern geography The industry is characterized by territorial disunity of places of extraction and enrichment of lead and zinc ores and their metallurgical processing. For example, Ireland, which extracts zinc and lead ores, does not have the capacity to smelt them, while in Japan, the Federal Republic of Germany, and France, the size of metal smelting significantly exceeds the size of zinc and lead production in these countries. Along with the influence of other factors, this is explained by the possibility of using long-distance raw materials, since the transportability of zinc and lead concentrates due to their high metal content (from 30 to 70%) is extremely high.
Placement of the tin industry. Most (about 2/3) of the production and smelting of tin is provided by the countries of Southeast Asia and, above all, Malaysia. Bolivia, Russia, and China also have large volumes of tin mining and smelting.
In the world production of zinc, lead and tin, as well as in the copper industry, the share of secondary raw materials (scrap metal) is high. This is especially typical for non-ferrous metallurgy in developed countries, where secondary raw materials provide 50% of lead smelting, 25% of zinc and tin.
9.5. Mechanical engineering of the world.
Mechanical engineering is the main branch of the world industry, accounting for about 35% of the value of world industrial production. Mechanical engineering is the most labor-intensive industry among the industries. Instrument making, electrical and aerospace industries, nuclear engineering and other industries producing complex equipment are especially labor-intensive. In this regard, one of the main conditions for the placement of mechanical engineering is to provide it with a qualified workforce, the presence of a certain level of industrial culture, research and development centers.
The proximity to the raw material base is important only for some branches of heavy engineering (production of metallurgical, mining equipment, boiler construction, etc.).
In the mechanical engineering of the world, a dominant position is occupied by a small group of developed countries - the United States, which accounts for almost 30% of the cost of engineering products, Japan - 15%, Germany - about 10%, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada. Practically all types of modern mechanical engineering are developed in these countries, their share in the world export of machinery is high (developed countries as a whole account for over 80% of world export of machinery and equipment). With an almost complete range of production of mechanical engineering products, the key role in the development of mechanical engineering in this group of countries belongs to the aerospace industry, microelectronics, robotics, nuclear power engineering, machine tools, heavy engineering, and the automotive industry.
The group of world leaders in mechanical engineering also includes Russia (6% of the cost of engineering products), China (3%) and several small industrialized countries - Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, the Netherlands, etc. Mechanical engineering has made great strides in its development in developing countries as well. In contrast to developed countries, whose mechanical engineering is based on a high level of research and development (R&D), high qualifications work force and is focused mainly on the production of technically complex and high-quality products, the mechanical engineering of developing countries, based on the cheapness of local labor, specializes, as a rule, in the production of mass, labor-intensive, technically simple, low-quality types of products. Among the enterprises here are many purely assembly plants, receiving disassembled sets of machines from industrialized countries. Few developing countries have modern machine-building plants, primarily new industrial ones - South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, India, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. The main directions of development of their mechanical engineering are the production of household electrical appliances, the automotive industry, and shipbuilding.
Mechanical engineering is subdivided into general, including machine-tool engineering, heavy engineering, agricultural engineering and other industries, transport engineering and electrical engineering, including electronics. The largest producers and exporters of general engineering products in general are developed countries: Germany, USA, Japan, etc. Developed countries are also the main manufacturers and suppliers of machine tools to the world market (Japan, Germany, USA, Italy and Switzerland stand out). In the structure of the general mechanical engineering of developing countries, the production of agricultural machinery and simple equipment predominates.
World leaders in the field of electrical engineering and electronics - USA, Japan, Russia, Great Britain, Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands. The production of household electrical appliances and consumer electronics products has also developed in developing countries, especially in the countries of East and Southeast Asia.
Among the branches of transport engineering, the automotive industry is developing most dynamically. The area of its spatial distribution is constantly growing and currently includes, along with traditional, major car manufacturers (Japan, USA, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, Sweden, Spain, Russia, etc.), relatively new countries for the industry - South Korea, Brazil, Argentina, China, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Poland.
Unlike automotive, aircraft, shipbuilding, rolling stock production railways is experiencing stagnation. The main reason for this is the lack of demand for their products.
Shipbuilding has moved from developed countries to developing ones. The largest ship manufacturers are South Korea (ahead of Japan and come out on top in the world), Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, China, Taiwan. At the same time, the United States, Western European countries (Great Britain, Germany, etc.), as a result of the reduction in ship production, ceased to play a significant role in world shipbuilding.
The aviation industry is concentrated in countries with a high level of science and workforce qualifications - the USA, Russia, France, Great Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands.
V territorial structure of the world mechanical engineering, there are four main regions - North America, foreign Europe, East and Southeast Asia and the CIS.
North America (USA, Canada, Mexico, Puerto Rico) accounts for about 1/3 of the value of engineering products. V international division Labor region acts as the largest manufacturer and exporter of highly sophisticated machinery, heavy engineering products and knowledge-intensive industries. So, in the United States, which occupies a leading position in the region and the world in terms of the total cost of mechanical engineering products, a large role belongs to aerospace engineering, military-industrial electronics, computer production, nuclear power engineering, military shipbuilding, etc.
The countries of Europe (excluding the CIS) also account for about 1/3 of the world's mechanical engineering. The region is represented by mechanical engineering of all types, but it is especially distinguished by general mechanical engineering (machine tool construction, production of equipment for metallurgy, textile, paper, watch and other industries), electrical engineering and electronics, transport engineering (automotive, aircraft, shipbuilding). The leader of European engineering Germany is the largest exporter of general engineering products in the region and in the world.
The region, which includes the countries of East and Southeast Asia, accounts for about a quarter of the world's mechanical engineering. The main stimulating factor in the development of mechanical engineering in the countries of the region is the relative cheapness of labor. The leader of the region is Japan - the second engineering power in the world, the largest exporter of products from the most qualified industries (microelectronics, electrical engineering, aircraft engineering, robotics, etc.). Other countries - China, Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. produce labor-intensive, but less complex products (production of household electrical appliances, cars, ships, etc.) and are also very actively involved in work on the external market ...
The CIS countries form a special region of the world mechanical engineering. They have a full range of engineering production. The branches of the military-industrial complex, the aviation and rocket-and-space industries, consumer electronics, and some simple branches of general mechanical engineering (production of agricultural machinery, metal-consuming machine tools, power equipment, etc.) were especially developed here. At the same time, in a number of industries, especially knowledge-intensive ones, there is a serious lagging behind. The leader of the CIS is Russia, despite the enormous opportunities for the development of mechanical engineering (significant production, scientific and technical, intellectual and resource potential, a capacious domestic market, presenting a great demand for a variety of engineering products, etc.), in the international division of labor, it is distinguished only by the production of weapons and the latest space technology and is even forced to import many types of machines.
Outside the main machine-building regions, there are machine-building centers, which are quite large in scale and complexity of the structure of production - India, Brazil, Argentina. Their mechanical engineering is mainly working for the domestic market. These countries export cars, ships, bicycles, simple types of household appliances (refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners, calculators, watches, etc.).
9.6. Chemical industry of the world.
- As part of the chemical industry, there are:
- mining and chemical industry (extraction of apatites and phosphorites, sodium chloride and potassium salts, sulfur and other mining chemical raw materials);
- the main chemical industry producing inorganic compounds(acids, alkalis, soda, mineral fertilizers, etc.);
- industry polymer materials(including organic synthesis), the most important branches of which are the production of synthetic rubber, synthetic resins and plastics, chemical fibers.
The location of the chemical industry depends on many factors.
The chemical industry is a very capacious consumer of raw materials, the specific costs of which in some cases significantly exceed the weight of finished products (production of soda, synthetic rubber, plastics, chemical fibers, potash and nitrogen fertilizers, etc.).
In addition to a large amount of raw materials, chemical industries (production of synthetic materials, soda, etc.) consume a lot of water, fuel and energy.
Its high-tech production (the production of varnishes, dyes, reagents, pharmaceuticals, photographic and toxic chemicals, high-quality polymeric materials, special-purpose chemicals for electronics, etc.) make high demands on the level of training of the workforce, the development of R&D, the production of special equipment (devices , devices, machines).
Strengthening the science intensity of the chemical industry as a whole, and especially its individual industries, predetermined the priority of the development of the industry in highly developed countries. Many traditional branches of the chemical industry - mining chemistry, inorganic chemistry (including the production of fertilizers), the production of some simple organic products (including plastics and chemical fibers) have been rapidly developing in recent years in developing countries.
Industrialized countries are increasingly specialized in the production of the latest high-tech types of chemical products. Particularly prominent in this respect are the United States - the world's largest producer and exporter of chemical products (about 20% of world chemical products and 15% of its world exports), Western European countries, primarily Germany, Italy, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, which provide 23-24% of world production and export of chemical products, and Japan (15% of world production and export).
A very large region specializing in the production of chemical products (mainly semi-products of organic synthesis and fertilizers) has developed in the Persian Gulf. The raw materials for production here are huge resources of associated (oil production) gas. The region's oil-producing countries - Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Iran, Bahrain, and others - provide 5-7% of the world's chemical products, which are almost entirely export-oriented.
Outside of these regions, the chemical industry of the CIS countries is distinguished by a high level of development, where Russia stands out (3-4% of world chemical production), China, the Republic of Korea, India, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil.
Among the industries, the leading place is occupied by the polymer materials industry, based on oil and gas or petrochemical raw materials. Over a long period of time raw material base Coal chemical and vegetable raw materials were almost everywhere in the polymer materials industry. The change in the nature of the raw material base significantly influenced the geography of industry - the importance of coal regions decreased, the role of oil and gas production regions and coastal regions increased.
Currently, the most powerful organic synthesis industry is in economically developed countries with large reserves of oil and gas (USA, Canada, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, etc.), or occupying a favorable position for the supply of these types of chemical raw materials (Japan, Italy, France , Germany, Belgium, etc.).
All of the above-mentioned countries occupy leading positions in the world production of synthetic resins and plastics and other types of synthetic products. Of the polymer industries, only man-made fibers are showing a shift towards developing countries. In this type of production, along with the traditional leaders - the USA, Japan, Germany, etc., China, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, and India have also been included in the number of the largest manufacturers in recent years.
Unlike the polymer materials industry, the mining and basic chemistry industries are widely represented not only in economically developed countries, but also in developing countries.
The leading producers of mineral fertilizers are China, USA, Canada, India, Russia, Germany, Belarus, France, Ukraine, Indonesia. At the same time, for the extraction and processing of phosphorites, along with the United States, the countries of Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Senegal, Benin), Asia (Jordan, Israel), the CIS (Russia, Kazakhstan), Christmas Islands and Nauru stand out.
The overwhelming part of the world production and processing of potash salts is carried out by the USA, Canada, Germany, France, Russia, Belarus.
The main raw material for the production of nitrogen fertilizers is natural gas. Therefore, among the most important producers and exporters of nitrogen fertilizers are, first of all, countries rich in natural gas (USA, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, the countries of the Persian Gulf). Large quantities of nitrogen fertilizers are also produced by France, Germany, Poland, Ukraine, China, India, whose nitrogen fertilizer industry is closely related to the ferrous metallurgy of these countries.
Sulfur-producing countries - USA, Canada, Mexico, Germany, France, Poland. Ukraine, Russia, Turkmenistan, Japan, etc. The largest producers of sulfuric acid are the USA, China, Japan and Russia (they account for more than half of the world production).
9.7. Light industry of the world.
Light industry unites many industries and subsectors, the main of which are textile, sewing and footwear. These industries are currently developing especially rapidly in the countries of new industrialization and other developing countries, which is largely due to their high availability of raw materials and cheap labor. Industrialized countries, having yielded their positions in a number of traditional mass, technically uncomplicated industries (cheap types of fabrics, footwear, clothing, and other types of consumer goods), retain the leading role in the manufacture of especially fashionable, high-quality, expensive products focused on high technology and labor qualifications, a limited circle of consumers (production of carpets, furs, jewelry, standards of footwear, clothing, fabrics from expensive raw materials, etc.).
The textile industry in the era of scientific and technological revolution has significantly changed its structure. For a long period of time, the main industry textile industry cotton remained in the world, followed by woolen, linen and man-made fiber processing. At present, the share of chemical fibers in the world production of fabrics has significantly increased, while the share of cotton, wool, and especially flax has decreased. Creation of mixed fabrics from natural and chemical fibers, knitwear (knitted fabric) was of great importance. The share of chemical fibers in the textile industry of developed countries has especially increased. In the economies of developing countries, the main types of textile raw materials remain cotton, wool, and natural silk, although the share of products made from chemical fibers has grown significantly in recent years.
The textile industry as a whole is developing at a faster pace in the group of developing countries. Asia has become the main region of the textile industry in the world, giving today about 70% of the total amount of fabrics, more than half of the production of cotton and woolen fabrics.
The main producers of cotton fabrics are China (30% of world production), India (10%), USA, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Pakistan, Italy, Egypt,
A significant part of Asian countries are also among the leading producers of woolen fabrics. The world's largest manufacturer of these fabrics is China (15%), followed by Italy (14%), Japan, USA, India, Turkey, Republic of Korea, Germany, Great Britain, Spain.
And in the production of the most expensive silk fabrics, with the absolute leadership of the United States (over 50%), the share of Asian countries, especially India, China and Japan (over 40%) is also very large.
The production of linen fabrics has decreased significantly. They are produced in large quantities only in Russia and in Western Europe (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain).
The developed countries of the world (especially the USA, Italy, Japan, Germany, France), while their share in the production of cotton and woolen fabrics is decreasing, remain the largest producers of knitwear and fabrics made of chemical fibers (synthetic and blended). Although in these types of textile industry their role is steadily declining due to the organization of production in developing countries (India, China, Republic of Korea, Taiwan, etc.).
Russia, which was one of the largest manufacturers of all types of natural fabrics in the world, is experiencing a dramatic decline in their production.
Developing countries are also of great importance in the production of garment products (underwear, outerwear, etc.). Many of them, and above all China, India, South Korea, Taiwan, Colombia, have become the largest manufacturers and exporters of ready-made clothing. Developed countries (especially the USA, France, Italy, etc.) are increasingly specialized in the production of fashionable, elite, individual products,
The footwear industry among the branches of the light industry has moved to the greatest extent from developed countries to countries with cheap labor - developing countries. The leaders in the manufacture of footwear were the PRC (which overtook the previous leaders in its production of Italy and the United States and gives more than 40% of footwear in the world) and other Asian countries - the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand. In developed countries (Italy, USA, Austria, Germany stand out), mainly the manufacture of leather footwear from expensive raw materials, with a high labor intensity of production, has been preserved. Italy is the largest manufacturer and exporter of such footwear. In Russia, the production of footwear in recent years has decreased several times, and the country from the world's largest producer of footwear (second only to China in 1990) has turned into a significant importer of footwear.
9.8. World timber industry.
The timber industry includes harvesting, mechanical and chemical processing of wood, pulp and paper production.
The geography of the timber industry is largely determined by the location of forest resources. The world's forest resources (forested area of the planet, wood reserves on it) are concentrated in two different geographic location and species composition forest belts- north and south.
Northern forest belt covers areas temperate zone Eurasia and North America, Forests here are represented mainly by conifers (pine, spruce, larch, fir, cedar). Deciduous trees grow birch, aspen, alder, oak, beech, hornbeam, ash, and others. Coniferous forests occupy 1.2 billion hectares (or 1/3 of all forest areas in the world) with timber reserves of 127 billion cubic meters. m, of which most of the reserves are in Russia (over 60%), Canada (about 30%), the USA, Finland and Sweden. In countries northern belt harvest the bulk of the world's commercial timber.
The southern forest belt includes wet equatorial and seasonally wet rainforests Amazons in South America (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, etc.), Africa (Republic of Congo and Cote d'Ivoire, Angola, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, etc.), Southeast
Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, etc.), Australia and Oceania (Papua New Guinea, northeastern Australia, etc.). Hardwoods dominate here. Among them are especially valuable ornamental wood - mahogany, iron, sandalwood, etc. Most of the timber reserves of the belt are concentrated in South America (about 60%) and Asia (25%). In countries southern belt(these are mainly developing countries) of all harvested timber, only 10 - 20% is used for industrial timber (most of it is exported to Western Europe, Japan, etc.), the rest is used as fuel.
The volume of timber harvesting in the world is 4 billion cubic meters. m, of which about a third (1.2 billion cubic meters) is harvested in developed countries. In recent years, the share of developing countries has been growing. The United States, Russia, Canada, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria, China, and Sweden are especially distinguished by the scale of logging. The largest wood exporters are the United States (15% of world exports), India and Brazil (8% each), Indonesia and Canada (6% each).
Mechanical and chemical processing of wood is the lot of mainly developed countries. In the world production of sawn timber (500 million cubic meters), the main countries are the USA (20%), Canada (12%), Japan, China and Russia (6% each); cellulose (160 million tons) - USA (30%), Canada (15%), China, Japan, Sweden, Finland (6-7% each); paper (180 million tons) - USA (45%), Japan (16%), China (12%), Canada (10%), Finland, Sweden, France, Republic of Korea.
Finland (1400 kg), Sweden (670 kg), Canada (530 kg), Norway (400 kg) are leading in the production of paper per capita (on average 45 kg in the world). In Russia, this figure is much lower - 35 kg.
Ferroalloys- iron alloys with the so-called alloying metals (manganese, chromium, etc.), are used in steel smelting as special additives to improve the quality of the metal.
The developing countries of Asia specialize more in sports and indoor footwear.
Fuel and energy industry() is a collection of industries fuel industry, electricity, fuel and energy delivery vehicles.
Energy- the basis for the development of productive forces and the very existence of human society. It ensures the operation of power devices in industry, agriculture, transport and in everyday life. This is the most material-intensive industry in the world. The majority is also associated with energy.
Primary energy carriers (oil, natural gas, coal) are simultaneously an extremely important resource base for the petrochemical, gas chemical, and chemical industries. The products of their processing form the basis for obtaining all polymeric materials, nitrogen fertilizers and many other valuable substances.
There are three main stages in the development of the world's fuel and energy industry: coal, oil and gas, and modern.
At the end of the XIX and beginning of the XX century. in industrial energy and international trade in fuel, coal dominated. Back in 1948, the share of coal in the total consumption of the main sources of energy was 60%. But in the 50-60s. The structure of energy resources consumption has changed significantly, oil came out on top - 51%, the share of coal decreased to 23%, natural gas - 21.5%, hydropower - 3%, nuclear energy - 1.5%.
Such changes in the structure of energy resources consumption were due to the widespread development of new large sources of oil and natural gas; a number of advantages of these types of fuel over solid fuels (high efficiency of production, transportation, consumption); the scale of the use of oil and natural gas not only as fuel, but also as an industrial raw material increased.
But in the 70s, there was a global energy crisis, which primarily affected the oil industry. As a result, the share of oil in total consumption and production of energy resources began to decline.
During this period, a course was taken towards the use of nuclear energy. But the 1986 Chernobyl disaster struck painfully in this area of energy. After the catastrophe, some countries either dismantled their nuclear power plants or made a decision on their gradual closure (,). In some countries (Netherlands,), nuclear power plant construction programs were frozen. Most of the other countries in foreign Europe, as well as, although they did not dismantle their nuclear power plants, they stopped building new ones.
Since the 80s. as a priority, a direction is put forward that provides for the transition from the use of predominantly exhaustible resources to the use of inexhaustible energy (wind, sun, tide, geothermal sources, hydro resources, etc.).
Thus, the current stage in the use of energy resources is of a transitional nature. It may last for several decades until there is a gradual transition from the use of mineral fuel to the predominant use of inexhaustible energy resources.
The structure of world consumption of primary energy sources today is as follows: oil - 34.1%; coal - 29.6%; gas - 26.5%; hydropower - 5.2%; nuclear energy - 4.6%.
World production and consumption of fuels and energy has pronounced and regional differences. Oil today leads in the structure of energy consumption in most regions of the world, but in Australia, for example, coal leads, and in the CIS - gas.
60% of world energy consumption is accounted for by economically developed countries (countries of the North), and 40% - by developing countries (countries of the South), although their share has been steadily increasing in recent years. According to scientists' calculations, by 2010 this ratio will be: 55% / 45%. This is due to the movement of industries to developing countries, as well as the implementation of energy conservation policies by developed countries.
The first place in energy consumption today is overseas Asia pushing North America to second place. Foreign Europe ranks third with 24%, and the CIS ranks fourth. Among the countries, the USA is leading (3100 million tons of fuel equivalent), followed by: China (1250), Russia (900), Japan (670), (460), (425), Canada (340), (335), ( 330), Italy (240).
To characterize the level of development of the country's economy, an important indicator is the per capita consumption of energy resources.
Among the countries - exporters of fuel and energy, oil exporters prevail, and among the importers - the developed countries of the West.
Fuel industry Is a complex of industries involved in the extraction and processing of fuel and energy raw materials. Its importance lies in the provision of fuel and raw materials to other industries - heat power engineering, petrochemistry, metallurgy, etc. Under the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, the role of the fuel industry increases due to the development of electrification and heating of production facilities, which cause an intensive increase in energy consumption.
The fuel industry includes the following industries:
- coal;
- oil;
- gas;
- peat;
- shale;
- uranium mining.
Coal industry very promising in the world energy supply (coal resources have not really been explored yet, their general geological reserves significantly exceed those of oil and natural gas). World coal production is constantly increasing, while the growth rates have slightly decreased in recent years. Modern world coal production is at the level of 4.5-5 billion tons. Coal mining is distributed among the regions as follows. Among the main coal-mining countries are representatives from almost all regions of the world. The exception is the coal-poor countries of Latin America, whose share in world coal production is extremely small. China (1,170 million tons), the USA (970), India (330), Australia (305), Russia (270), (220), Germany (200), Poland (160), ( 90), Ukraine (80), (75), Canada (70), Indonesia (70), (35), Great Britain (30).
Given the widespread occurrence of coal deposits, it is mined mainly in those countries where there is a need for it, i.e. most of the coal is consumed where it is mined. Therefore, only a tenth of the world's coal production, and high quality (mainly coking) coal, is exported annually. The largest coal exporters are Australia, USA, South Africa, Canada, Poland, Russia. The main importers are Japan, South Korea, Italy, Germany, Great Britain. Australia supplies coal mainly to and. The USA and South Africa work for the European and Latin American markets. The spread of Russian coal (Pechora and Kuznetsk basins) abroad is limited by its weak competitiveness (due to the high cost of production, remoteness from the main consumers, etc.) with local and imported fuel from other countries.
The main cargo flows of coal ("coal bridges") have the following directions:
- Australia - Japan, South Korea;
- Australia - Western Europe;
- USA - Western Europe;
- USA - Japan;
- South Africa - Japan;
- Canada - USA.
Oil industry... In the modern economy, oil products are also widely used both for energy purposes and as chemical raw materials. The average annual oil production reaches 3.6 billion tons.
Oil is produced in more than 90 countries, with 40% of the production coming from the economically developed ("Countries of the North"), and 60% from the developing ("Countries of the South"). Oil production is distributed among the regions as follows:
|
Region |
Production in billion tons |
Share in world production in% |
|
Overseas asia |
1455 |
40,7 |
|
520 |
14,5 |
|
|
480 |
13,4 |
|
|
CIS |
395 |
|
|
Africa |
375 |
10,4 |
|
Overseas Europe |
330 |
|
|
Australia and Oceania |
The top ten countries - the largest oil producers are formed (440 million tons), the USA (355), Russia (350), Iran (180), Mexico (170), (165), China (160), Norway (160), Iraq (130 ), Canada (125), UK (125), (115), (105), (105), (70), (65), Indonesia (65), (65), (45), (40), Colombia (35), Kazakhstan (35), (35), India (35), (35), Australia (35).
About half of all oil produced is exported. In addition to the OPEC member countries, whose share in world oil exports is 65%, its largest suppliers to the world market are also Russia, Mexico, and the United Kingdom.
Large quantities of oil are imported by the USA (up to 550 million tons), Japan (260), Germany (110) and other countries.
As a result, a huge territorial gap has formed between the main areas of oil production and areas of its consumption.
Main export areas Near and Middle East (950 million tons per year), Russia (210), West Africa (160), Caribbean (150), (140), Canada (100), Europe (Norway, UK) (100) ...
The main import areas are the USA (550 million tons per year), Foreign Europe (500), Japan (260), China (90), South America (55).
Therefore, the main export cargo flows of oil ("oil bridges") have the following directions:
- Persian Gulf - Japan, South Korea;
- Persian Gulf - Western Europe;
- Persian Gulf - USA;
- Southeast Asia - Japan;
- Caribbean - USA;
- North Africa - Western Europe;
- Western Africa - Western Europe;
- West Africa - USA;
- Russia - Western Europe and the CIS.
The world's oil refining industry is largely focused on the main consumers of oil and oil products - developed countries (they concentrate more than 60% of its capacities). The share of the USA (21% of the world's refinery capacities), Western Europe (20%), Russia (17%), Japan (6%) is especially large.
Gas industry... Natural gas, just like oil, is used as a fuel and as a raw material for. Among the types of natural gas, associated petroleum gas, which is extracted during oil production, is of the greatest importance. The presence of significant proven reserves of natural gas, the cheapness of its production, transportation and use contribute to the development of the industry.
World production of natural gas is constantly growing and in 2000 amounted to about 2.5 trillion cubic meters. m. Among the regions in terms of natural gas production, the places are distributed as follows: North America (715 billion m3), CIS (690), foreign Asia (450), overseas Europe(285), Africa (130), Latin America (100), Australia and Oceania (50).
Among the countries stand out: Russia (585 billion m3), the USA (540) and Canada (170), which account for more than half of its world total. Next come Great Britain (110), Algeria (85), Indonesia (65), Netherlands (60), Iran (60), Saudi Arabia (55), (55), Norway (55), Turkmenistan (50), Malaysia (45 ), United Arab Emirates (40), Australia (35).
The world's largest producers of natural gas - Russia, the USA, Canada, the Netherlands, Great Britain and others - simultaneously consume large quantities of natural gas, therefore, in comparison with oil, the share of natural gas supplies for export is relatively small - only about 20-25% of the produced natural gas. Its largest exporters are Russia (about 30% of world exports), Canada, Algeria, Norway, and the Netherlands. The United States, being one of the largest consumers of natural gas, uses not only its own, but also gas from other countries - Canada, Algeria, etc. Along with the United States, Japan and most of European countries import gas (especially in large quantities - Germany, France, Italy) ... Natural gas supplies for export are carried out via gas pipelines (from Canada and the USA, from Russia and to and Europe, from and to Europe) or by sea transportation in liquefied form (from Japan, from Algeria to the USA).
Thus, the main directions of natural gas transportation ("gas bridges") are:
- Russia - Europe and the CIS;
- Canada - USA;
- Mexico - USA;
- Netherlands, Norway - Western Europe;
- Algeria - USA;
- Algeria - Western Europe;
- Indonesia, Middle East, Australia - Japan.
Electric power industry of the world. The power industry is one of the leading industries. Its development largely determines the level of development of the economy as a whole. World electricity production is approximately 15.5 trillion kWh. Electricity is produced in all, but only 11 countries have an annual production of more than 200 billion kWh.
USA (3980 billion kWh), China (1325), Japan (1080), Russia (875), Canada (585), Germany (565), India (550), France (540), Great Britain (370), Brazil (340). The gap in electricity production between developed and developing countries is large: developed countries account for about 65% of all generation, developing countries - 22%, countries with economies in transition - 13%.
An important indicator of the country's electricity supply is the amount of its production per capita. This indicator is the highest in countries such as Norway (26 thousand kWh), Sweden (26 thousand), Canada (18 thousand), USA (14 thousand), France (9 thousand), Japan (8.5 thousand).
Leading in the structure of electricity generation heat power engineering... More than 60% of all electricity is generated at thermal power plants (TPPs), about 18% at hydroelectric power plants (HPPs), about 17% at nuclear power plants (NPPs) and about 1% at geothermal, tidal, solar, and wind power plants.
Heat power engineering has the following advantages:
- relatively short construction time;
- stability of work.
However, thermal power engineering has a number of disadvantages, primarily associated with. Thermal power engineering ranks first in terms of emissions of pollutants c. The emissions include particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides. "Acid rain", formed during the dissolution of sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere, cause significant damage to forests, rivers, lakes, soil, and also to buildings (residential and administrative buildings and especially architectural monuments, which are rapidly deteriorating in recent years). In addition, thermal energy also leads to thermal pollution (unused heat emission).
Of the three main sources of thermal energy, most of all pollution and "greenhouse gases" are produced and released into the environment as a result of burning coal, to a lesser extent oil, and the least - natural gas.
Thermal energy is most developed in countries with large reserves of fuel (coal, oil, gas). The largest share of thermal energy in the energy structure is in Poland, the Netherlands, and South Africa.
Hydropower is less harmful to the environment. Its main advantages:
- low cost;
- ecological cleanliness of production;
- renewability of the resources used.
But this type of energy also has its drawbacks. Thus, during the construction of a hydroelectric power station, fertile lands are flooded, which could be used in agriculture, people have to be relocated from flooded zones (residents of villages, settlements, cities who lived in the construction zone of hydroelectric power plants and future reservoirs), water and terrestrial ecosystems and their fertility are changing, and etc. Everything else construction, Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, etc.). Nuclear power plants operate in more than 30 countries around the world. The USA (98.5 million kW), France (63.2), Japan (44.3), Germany (21.3), Russia (20.8), the Republic of Korea (13, 0), UK (12.4), Ukraine (11.2), Canada (10.0), Sweden (9.4). In terms of the share of nuclear power plants in the total electricity generation, countries are distinguished in which this share is more than 50% - (82%), France (77%), Belgium (55%) Sweden (53%). Such countries as Ukraine, R. Korea, (45-47% each), Switzerland (42-43%), Germany and Japan (33-36%) also have a high share.
Thus, the main capacities of the nuclear power plant are concentrated in the Western and Eastern Europe, and the Asia-Pacific region.
The development of the nuclear power industry in many countries of the world is constrained by the fear of possible nuclear disasters, a lack of capital (the construction of a nuclear power plant is a very capital-intensive business).
The problems of storage and processing of wastes from nuclear power plants, as well as issues of conservation of nuclear power plants after their expiration date, remain unresolved in the nuclear power industry. These are the problems of the entire world community. You can treat the construction of nuclear power plants in different ways, however, their existence and use in the coming years is an objective reality. At the end of the 90s, more than 420 nuclear power units were in operation in the world, and several dozen more were under construction. If (hypothetically) all nuclear power plants in the world were replaced by thermal ones that run on coal, then, firstly, it would be necessary to additionally extract a huge amount of coal, and secondly, as a result of its combustion, additional billions of tons of carbon dioxide would be released into the environment. , millions of tons of nitrogen oxides, sulfur, fly ash, i.e. the amount of hazardous waste would increase manifold. According to other calculations, the operation of nuclear power plants allows saving (not producing or using for other purposes) about 400 million tons of oil. This is a considerable amount. In addition, according to the specialists of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), thermonuclear fusion is a method of obtaining energy, potentially acceptable from the point of view of ecology and safety, in the future it can provide the whole world with the necessary amount. Therefore, a number of countries (France, Japan, South Korea, China continue to develop long-term nuclear energy projects. Russia is also ready to resume its programs in this area in the near future.
Alternative energy sources have a lesser impact on the environment. However, their role in the energy sector of individual countries is still insignificant. Moreover, there are practically no absolutely harmless industries. Thus, the use of geothermal energy entails significant pollution of water, air and land. Wind farms cause unacceptable noise effects and should be located away from settlements etc.
The following countries are distinguished by the use of alternative energy sources:
- GeoTES -, countries of Central America;
- Tidal power plants - France, Great Britain, Canada, Russia, India, China;
- Wind farms - Germany, Denmark, UK, Netherlands, USA, India, China.
One of the most important ways to solve the energy problem is to save energy and increase the efficiency of its use, measures to reduce energy consumption per unit of manufactured product, on the use of the latest technologies(low-waste, non-waste) and, as a result, the use of less fuel resources and a decrease in production waste.
Fuel and energy complex.
Fuel and energy complex is a set of sectors of the economy associated with the production and distribution of energy in its various types and forms. The fuel industry is the basis for the development of the Russian economy, an instrument for conducting domestic and foreign policy. The fuel industry is linked to the entire industry of the country. More than 20% of funds are spent on its development, 30% of fixed assets and 30% of the value of industrial products in Russia are spent.
National economic significance:
Within the framework of the national economic approach in theory large systems power engineers have developed an understanding of the territorial hierarchy of vertically organized sectoral systems of the fuel and energy complex, developed principles and methods for forecasting and planning regional fuel and energy complexes, including original methods for coordinating hierarchical solutions. The development of the fuel and energy complex is the basis for solving all national economic problems, therefore, the following organizational and economic measures should be provided for in the energy program:
· Strengthening the material and technical base of the fuel and energy complex and related industries by increasing the allocation of material and financial resources for their development.
· Improvement of the distribution of productive forces in the direction of bringing fuel consumers closer to the main fuel and energy bases.
· Development of market mechanisms for regulating production in the fuel and energy sector.
· Development of various methods of transportation of energy resources, where the main increase in the volume of production of oil, gas, coal, etc. will be ensured.
Industry composition:
The fuel and energy complex is divided into:
Fuel industry. Extraction and processing of coal, oil, gas, shale and peat. Fuel processing takes place at the places of production, on the routes of cargo flows, in the areas of fuel consumption.
Electricity. Electricity production at thermal power plants (CHP, IES), hydroelectric power plants, nuclear power plants. Electricity transmission via power lines.
The fuel and energy complex includes oil and gas pipelines that form a single network.
Energy is the foundation of the economy, the basis of all material production, a key element of the country's life support and the basis of the country's export base. The power industry is one of the most important indicators of the level of development of the economy and the country. The use of energy resources is one of the indicators of the level of development of a civilization. Development of any branch of the economy is impossible without fuel and electricity.
Energy is one of the factors in the location of the economy, since the fuel and energy complex is located near large sources of energy (coal and oil basins), powerful power plants, from which entire industrial regions grow, cities and towns are created, that is, the fuel and energy complex plays a regional-forming role. Technological progress increases the distances over which fuel and electricity are transmitted. This contributes to the development of areas that are poor in their own energy sources, and a more rational location of the economy.
The role of the electric power industry and the fuel industry supporting it in transferring the entire economy to a modern technical basis was defined in the GOELRO plan in 1920, since all equipment was based on the use of electricity. Therefore, the scale, technological level, and rates of development of all sectors of the economy depend on the fuel and energy complex. The introduction of advanced techniques and technologies related to scientific and technological progress in the economy requires the power supply of workers' labor, that is, the consumption of all types of energy per person employed in production.
Territorial location and its features:
Coal industry location:
The highest availability of coal reserves is in the West Siberian region (Kuznetsk coal basin), East Siberian (Kansk-Achinsk brown coal basin) with the advantage of open-pit mining. The main source of technological fuel (coking coal) for the European part is coal from the Kuznetsk Basin, whose sphere of influence on the territory, due to the sovereignty of Ukraine, will no longer be limited to the left bank of the Volga, but will spread to the right bank of the Volga. The northern and northwestern regions of Russia are supplied with coal from the Lena basin. Concretization of the theoretical aspects of economic activity requires consideration of the scope of practical application of the methods of sectoral substantiation of the location of production, which are embodied in the consideration in this course economic geography and regional studies of intersectoral complexes of the national economy branches of Russia and the CIS countries. It is the basis of small settlements mainly in the eastern regions of Russia. Coal bases with large-scale production attract numerous adjacent and related industries and become the basis of large territorial-production formations and a network of settlements. Extraction and production of nuclear fuel from uranium ores is of great importance. Russia along with the USA, Canada, Australia produces and exports enriched uranium. The largest developed uranium deposit is Transbaikalia (Krasnokamensk mine).
Oil industry:
At present, oil production in Western Siberia accounts for about 90% of Russia's oil production (in 1993 - 220 million tons), and it continues to decline. The decrease in production in all state oil-producing associations was also influenced by the restriction of the intake of raw materials by oil refineries. In the current conditions, to ensure the stable development of the oil industry, the most pressing problems are increasing the resource base by increasing the drilling depth, expanding investment resources in high-quality equipment, new technologies, reliable and durable, as well as measures to stabilize oil production: financial stability and streamlining credit policy , the transition to world prices, the introduction of tax incentives for producers, the use of enhanced oil recovery methods. The main feature of the territorial organization of the oil industry is a sharp territorial discrepancy between the areas where the main reserves and oil production are located and the areas of processing and oil consumption. The main oil production region is the Tyumen region (especially the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, which is part of it), 70% of the reserves, the Volga regions (Tatarstan, Saratov, Samara), North. Caucasus, in the Far East - on Sakhalin, the shelf of the Sea of Okhotsk is promising. A common problem in oil and gas production is the maintenance and development of pipeline transport, the deterioration of individual parts. The oil industry is built according to a 3-link chain: "production-transportation-sales", and not according to 5 "d-t-refining-t-s".
Power engineering :
A characteristic feature of the territorial organization of the electric power industry in Russia is not the isolated location of power plants, but the work of their predominant part in the power systems. Power systems are a complex of large power plants of various types, interconnected by high-voltage power lines. Power systems contribute to the territorial dispersal of production and population, and can significantly reduce the required total capacity of power plants. The Unified Energy System of Russia consists of 70 regional energy systems. Integrated energy systems (UES) of the Center, North-West, Urals have been created; UPS North. The Caucasus; UES of Siberia; UES DV operates in isolation from other power systems. The largest hydro and thermal power plants have been created in the regions of new development (UES of Siberia). The cheapest electricity in the country is produced by the hydroelectric power station of the Angara-Yenisei cascade. Power plants - the most important factor territorial concentration of industry and urban growth.
Traditional electric power industry:
A characteristic feature of the traditional electric power industry is its long-term and good development; it has been tested for a long time in a variety of operating conditions. The main share of electricity in the world is obtained precisely at traditional power plants, their unit electrical capacity very often exceeds 1000 MW. The traditional power industry is divided into several areas.
Heat power engineering:
In this industry, electricity is generated at thermal power plants ( TPP), using for this the chemical energy of fossil fuel. They are divided into:
Steam turbine power plants, in which energy is converted using a steam turbine plant;
Gas turbine power plants, in which energy is converted using a gas turbine plant;
Combined cycle power plants, where energy is converted using a combined cycle plant.
Heat power engineering on a global scale prevails among traditional types, oil-based produces 39% of all electricity in the world, coal-27%, gas-24%, that is, only 90% of the total output of all power plants in the world. Energy in such countries of the world as Poland and South Africa is almost entirely based on the use of coal, and the Netherlands - on gas. The share of heat power engineering is very large in China, Australia, Mexico.
Hydropower:
In this industry, electricity is produced at Hydroelectric Power Plants ( Hydroelectric power station), using the energy of the water flow for this. Hydroelectric power plants dominate in a number of countries - in Norway and Brazil, all electricity generation occurs there. The list of countries in which the share of hydroelectric power generation exceeds 70% includes several dozen.
Nuclear energy:
The industry in which electricity is produced at nuclear power plants ( nuclear power station), using for this the energy of a nuclear chain reaction, most often uranium.
France is the leader in terms of the share of nuclear power plants in electricity generation, about 80%. It also prevails in Belgium, the Republic of Korea and some other countries. The world leaders in the production of electricity at nuclear power plants are the United States, France and Japan.
Unconventional electricity:
alternative energy
Most areas of unconventional electricity are based on quite traditional principles, but their primary energy is either sources of local importance, such as wind, geothermal, or sources under development, such as fuel cells or sources that may find application in the future, such as thermonuclear energy ... The characteristic features of unconventional energy are their environmental friendliness, extremely high capital construction costs (for example, for a solar power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW it is required to cover an area of about 4 km² with very expensive mirrors) and low unit capacity. Directions of unconventional energy:
Small hydroelectric power plants
Wind power
Geothermal energy
Solar energy
Bioenergy
Fuel cell plants
Hydrogen energy
Thermonuclear power engineering.
Gas industry :
Natural gas, in contrast to oil, must be sent directly to consumers. Therefore, the production, transportation and consumption of gas are closely related. It is the most environmentally friendly fuel, irreplaceable in densely populated regions oversaturated with industrial enterprises. The main gas resources are located in the north of the Tyumen region, in the Arctic. The most promising are the deposits of the Yamal Peninsula. In addition, Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories. Processing: Volga region, Siberia, Astrakhan region.
Regional development prospects:
optimization of all elements of state economic policy to ensure a more rational structure of oil production, bringing into circulation small and marginal oil fields, rationalizing the use of oil fields.
adoption of transparent and stable rules for the use of oil transportation infrastructure, adoption of a state program for its development in order to eliminate transport restrictions on the movement of oil and products of its processing.
development of open trade and competition in the domestic market for oil and oil products.
stimulating capital investment in oil companies into investment-deficient spheres of the Russian economy, including the fuel and energy complex, through economic mechanisms.
support for the priority development of oil refining complex, support of investments in this area, development of infrastructure for transportation and export of oil refined products.
refusal from measures of short-term administrative regulation of the oil market in favor of long-term mechanisms of state policy aimed at improving the structure of production, investment climate, reorientation of the business of oil companies towards long-term development interests.
