In the era early middle ages in the Near and Middle East, there have been much more serious changes than in Europe, which has not yet recovered from the collapse of Rome. In a matter of decades, a state with a territory larger than the Roman Empire was formed. The youngest of the world religions gave birth to the concept of "Islamic world". It was from that time that the expression "caliph for an hour", the words "arabesque", "arsenal", "chess", "astrolabe", Arabic numerals, names of stars and, of course, tales about Harun-ar-Rashid, Sinbad- sailor. Modern sailors sail the Strait of Gibraltar and Black Sea, so called by the Arabs.
The available data on Sindh shows that these prescriptions have been followed. Arabs settled in large cities, which were also military units, and provided military garrisons, but the civil administration was retained mainly by local chiefs, only a few of whom converted to Islam.
The administrative measures that Muhammad ibn Qasim carried out with non-Muslims after his victory over Dahar are often referred to as the "settlement of Brahmanabad". The basic principle was to treat Hindus as "people of the book" and to give them dhimmi status. In some respects, the agreements were even more liberal than the agreements provided to the “people of the book” by the later schools of Islamic law. For example, according to a later opinion, the dhimmis was unable to restore their places of worship, although the existing ones were allowed to stand.
Back in the VI century. n. e. The Arabian Peninsula was perceived as "the end of the world." In most of "stony Arabia" tribes of Bedouin Arabs who lived in tents and drank camel milk roamed. Only in the south, in Yemen, "happy Arabia", has an ancient state with flourishing trading cities existed since the time of the legendary Queen of Sheba. In the western part of Arabia, there were also several cities in which the merchants ruled. Among them, Yatrib (Medina) and Mecca, the center of the territory occupied by the Quraish (Quraish) tribe, stood out.
The question of restoring the damaged temple was approached by Muhammad, who referred the case to Hajaj. The latter, after consulting with the “ulam of Damascus,” not only granted permission, but also stated that as long as non-Muslims paid their contributions to the state, they were free to live as they liked. It seems that Hajaj wrote that the main inhabitants of Brahmanabad asked for permission to renovate the Buddha Temple and continue their religion. Since they made submission and agreed to pay taxes to the Khalifa, no more could be asked of them.
By the beginning of the 7th century. significant changes took place in the life of the Arab nomads. The tribal nobility stood out, owning large herds and captive slaves. (At the same time, the transition of Germanic and Slavic tribes to a feudal society was taking place in Europe.) Trade developed, a single North Arabian language and Arabic alphabetical writing developed. Among the Arabian sands, the poems of Bedouin poets sounded, including the legendary Majnun.
They were taken under our protection, and we in no way can reach out for their life or property. They are given permission to worship their gods. No one should be prohibited and should not follow their religion. They can live in their homes in any way. According to one of the early Muslim historians, the Arab conqueror even bypassed the privileged position of the Brahmins, not only in religious matters, but also in the administrative sphere. Muhammad ibn Qasim upheld their dignity and accepted orders confirming their superiority.
The further history of the Arabs turned out to be connected with the name of Muhammad, who came from a noble merchant Quraish family, known primarily as the founder of a new religion - Islam (Islam - "obedience to God"), or Islam (from the Arabic "Muslim" - orthodox).
The name of Muhammad stood on a par with the names of Buddha, Moses, Christ. The Prophet of Islam is an absolutely real and concrete historical person. Islam turned out to be the last religion in the world. It was immediately adapted to the needs of the nascent state and from its very inception turned out to be a very specific religion, starting with its preaching by Muhammad. Unlike previous religions, Islam first of all established the rules of life in this world, and only then promised heaven for the righteous, and fiery hell for sinners. At the same time, Islam has learned a lot from Judaism, Christianity and ancient Arabian beliefs.
They were protected from opposition and violence. Even a 3% share of the government revenues that they received during the reign of the rulers of Brahman Sindh was recognized by him. In his tax treaties, Muhammad ibn Qasim also attempted to provide some safeguards against oppression by appointing "villagers and main citizens to collect fixed taxes from cities and villages so that there is a sense of strength and protection."
When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, they sent their own officers to Sindh. The Abbasid governor Hisham, who arrived in Sindh in 757, carried out successful raids against Gujarat and Kashmir, but there were no permanent additions to Arab rule. Later, thanks to their homes, Arab control over Sindh weakened, and the process of disintegration was accelerated by tribal conflicts among the local Arabs. One governor went as far as revolting against Caliph al-Mamun. The revolt was suppressed, but Musa, who was made in charge of the affairs of Sindh, appointed him to succeed him after his death in 836 by his son Amran.
Muhammad was born about 570 in Mecca. From his youth, he, like his entourage, was engaged in caravan trade. Muhammad achieved influence among the Meccans in many ways thanks to his eldest wife Aisha (Khadija), the widow of a wealthy merchant. When Muhammad was 40 years old, in the month of Ramadan according to the lunar Arabic calendar, an event occurred that contributed to the birth of a new religion. At night on Mount Khira in the vicinity of Mecca, the supreme god of the Arabs, Allah, spoke to Muhammad, who had retired there, according to him. Allah (or his messenger Jebrail) forced Muhammad to repeat the words of the holy book. Finally, Muhammad was convinced of the divine revelations by Khadija and her cousin Varak. Muhammad began to publicly preach the truths revealed to him, the code of which he called the Koran ("knowledge"). Unlike the Bible with its stories about the universe and ancient people, the Koran is a sermon on behalf of Allah. Belief in one God - Allah, who created the world and rules over it, is proclaimed. Submission to God, private property, and certain moral commandments are recognized as the main values. In support of the stated truths, stories are cited, among which there are many borrowed from the Bible. So, there is a sura (chapter) "Nuh" about the worldwide flood and Nuh (Noah). One of the most popular suras - "Yusuf" - tells about Yusuf (Joseph the Beautiful), who carried the commandments of Allah through many trials and put his brothers to shame, who threw him into a well out of envy. Among the great prophets - the predecessors of Muhammad - Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus Christ) are named.
The Caliph acknowledged the appointment, but the beginning of a hereditary succession to the governorship meant weakening the hold on Baghdad. The energetic ruler Amran reacted decisively to the Jats and bear riots, but civil quarrels between the Arabs broke out and he lost his life.
There is no related history of Sindh and Multan since the recall of Muhammad ibn Qasim, but the work of Arab travelers and geographers allows us to fill the gap. Several years later, Ibn Hawkul, another traveler, visited the area. Both agree that the main Arab colonies were in Mansour, Multan, Debul and Nirun, all of which had large mosques on Friday. Non-Muslims made up the bulk of the population and were overwhelmingly in Debula and Alor. Relations between Arabs and non-Muslims were good.
Islam consolidated the division of society into rich and poor communes, obedience to the authorities, and asserted the undivided power of men over women. The moderate tastes of the Arabians were matched by a rejection of pork, wine, gambling, and usury. In the first sermons, Muhammad foreshadowed the proximity of the Last Judgment and reward for the righteous in paradise with beautiful gardens and sources (the eternal dream of the nomads of the desert), and sinners - in the throes of fiery hell. Subsequently, the preacher focused his attention on earthly life. In the beginning, many in Mecca did not take Muhammad seriously. Then the merchants - supporters of polytheism - began to persecute him, but at the same time a small group of adherents of Muhammad appeared. On September 20, 622, the herald of Islam arrived from Mecca to Yathrib, where the new teaching was more popular among the noble landowners. He continued to preach there, got a house and built next to it the first Muslim temple - a mosque. In Yatrib, Islam spread widely with the help of local authorities, headed by Muhammad. The custom has been established to pray to Allah 5 times a day. Muslims said: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet (messenger)."
Unlike historians of the sultanate period, Arab travelers refer to non-Muslims as dhimmis rather than infidels. Soon after the conquest of Sindh and Multan, cow-killing was prohibited in the area. The reason could be a simple desire to preserve the wealth of cattle, but attitudes towards Hindu sentiment could also be partially responsible for this move. Some Hindu leaders have shown a sympathetic interest in Islam, as in 886 a Hindu Raja commissioned the Arabic language from Mansoor to translate the Qur'an into the local language.
Scattered neighboring tribes began to unite around Yatrib on the ideological basis of Islam, many of which were conquered by force. The main task of Muhammad was to subjugate Mecca. After several years of enmity with her, the Muslims in 629 received permission to make a hajj - a pilgrimage to the shrine of the Arabs, the Kaaba temple ("cube"), where a mysterious black stone - a meteorite that fell from the sky - had long been embedded in the wall. A year later, the Muslims finally finally occupied Mecca and destroyed the images of the old gods. Since then, it has become a sacred center for Muslims, where pilgrimages are made annually in the month of Zulhija (the last month of the year). The adherents of Islam pray, turning their face to Mecca (the first Muslims turned their faces to Jerusalem). Yathrib remained the capital of the united state, receiving the name "city of the prophet" - Medina tal Nabi (or simply Medina). In the same 630, the nomads of the interior regions of Arabia and the city of Taif submitted to Muhammad. The Arab nobility sought to strengthen their power by capturing fertile Yemen and invading military units in the area of Byzantium and Iran. The troops were already being equipped when in 632 Muhammad died.
Another sign of the integration of the population into common life ruling class there was the use of Sindhi troops in the Arab armies. Modern records mention their presence in areas as remote as the borders of the Byzantine Empire. The Arab rulers adopted local practices to a much greater extent than the Ghaznavids later in Lahore, or the Turks and Afghans in Delhi. According to Masoudi, the ruler of Mansura had eighty war elephants and sometimes rode a chariot drawn by elephants. The Arabs of Mansoor are generally dressed like the people of Iraq, but the ruler's dress was similar to that of the Hindu rajah and, like them, he wore earrings and kept his hair for a long time.
After strife over power between the old adherents of Muhammad and the Medina nobility, the "deputy" of the prophet, the caliph, was elected. It was the merchant Abu Bakr, the father-in-law and friend of Muhammad. In the future, each ruler of the Arabs declared himself the caliph. The cult of the Prophet Muhammad was consolidated, the Koran, which was written mainly during his lifetime, was ordered, the month of the prophet's revelation - Ramadan - became the time of Muslim fasting, and the moment of flight to Medina ("hijra") - the beginning of the Muslim era.
After Muhammad ibn Qasim there were no large Arab immigrants, and Arab influence gradually diminished; but Sindh and Multan remained in touch with the Arab countries, in particular with Iraq and Egypt. During Masoudi's visit to Sindh, Arabic and Sindi were spoken, but Iranian influence was also strong, especially after the rise of the Daylamites, when the use of Persian became more widespread, especially in Multan.
Arab rule created people seen in Sindh and Multan, some of whom achieved glory and distinction in Damascus and Baghdad. One of them, Abu Maashar Sindi, an authority on the life of the Prophet, was so outstanding that when he died in Baghdad, the reigning caliph led prayers at his funeral. A number of other scholars and poets associated with Sindh are also mentioned in Arabic anthologies. Some were from immigrant families, but many were of Sindhi origin and included the descendants of captives taken into slavery during the Arab conquest or later wars.
The invasion of the troops of the Caliphate in the area near the Jordan River, which belonged to Byzantium, and the conquest of Yemen, which was subordinate to the Iranian kingdom of the Sassanids, led the Arabs to clash with these two largest states. Countries once conquered by the Romans (Syria, Palestine, Egypt) and the Iranians (Mesopotamia) adjoined directly to Arabia. Significant differences in the position of the indigenous population and the ruling elite of foreign origin, the existence of slavery did not contribute to the interest of the local population in maintaining Byzantine and Iranian domination. In addition, Byzantium and Iran have exhausted each other with endless wars for the border areas. The Arab caliphs took advantage of this. They called on their fellow tribesmen to march for the spread of Islam and, of course, promised a reward.
The most famous Arab poet of Cindy origin was Abul Ata Sindi, who was taken captive to Syria as a child and earned his reward with kazidah or ode. Despite his knowledge of literary Arabic, his pronunciation of Arabic words bore such traces of his origin that he had to involve the ravi to read his poems. He wrote strong qasids in praise of the Umayyad rulers and fierce elegies from their fall.
Life in the Arab dominance of Sindh and Multan was simple, but agriculture and trade were highly developed. Masoudi mentions a large number of villages in the principalities of Multan and Mansur, and apparently the whole country is well cultivated. There was active trade between Sindh and other parts of the Muslim world, and caravans went to Khurasan, most often along the route of Kabul and Bamiyan. There were also connections with Zabulistan and Sigistan through Ghazni and Kandahar. The prosperity of the region can be judged by the fact that Sindh and Multan provided 13.5 million dirhams to Abbasid's income, and the total income from the Kabul region in cash and cattle was less than two and a quarter million dirhams.
Under the second caliph, Omar (634-644), the Bedouin squads on swift horses, inspired by the idea of a holy war (jihad), attacked neighboring countries... The Byzantine army was defeated on the Yarmouk River in Syria, and the Sassanian army was defeated near the city of Qadisia on the Euphrates. Having conquered Syria, Mesopotamia (in Arabic - Iraq), Palestine, and then Egypt, the Arabs found support from part of the local population, and above all from people from Arabia who settled there at the beginning of our era. The caliphs guaranteed the local population, for the recognition of their power and the payment of a special tax, personal freedom and freedom of religion, since Jews and Christians, adherents of monotheism, were considered close to Muslims, and pagans were primarily persecuted under the first caliphs. Under the pretext of fighting paganism, Omar finally destroyed the Alexandrian library. According to legend, he said: everything that corresponds to the Qur'an in the ancient books is in the Qur'an, and what does not correspond to it is not suitable for Muslims.
Time, man and natural disasters have sharply narrowed with traces of Arab rule in Sindh. In 893, Debul was visited by a terrible earthquake, which practically destroyed the entire city; the number of deaths was estimated at 150. A similar disaster struck Brahmanabad later, but more permanent causes of damage were floods and changes during the Indus. The cumulative result is that none of the Arab cities survived, and their bottlenecks are uncertain.
It is not surprising, therefore, that historians place little emphasis on Arab rule in Sindh; although the visible traces of Arab rule have been destroyed, its invisible effects are many and far-reaching. Most of them, of course, belong to the former province of Sindh. The script adopted for the Sindhi language is Arabic, rather than Perso-Arabic used for other Muslim languages of the subcontinent, and contains a significant portion of Arabic words, mutilated or intact. Several of the leading Sindhi families are of Arab origin, and many others, albeit indigenous, have modified their genealogical tables to claim Arab ancestry.
In subsequent years, Iran became the main object of attention of the conquerors. The last Sassanian Shah Yazdigird III gathered the remnants of his troops at Nehavend in 643 and was finally defeated. The Iranians perceived this event as a turning point its history.
"And the century came to the great Omar, And the verse of the Koran sounded from the Minbar" (the pulpit in the mosque, from which sermons are read), - with these words, almost 400 years later, Ferdowsi finished his poem "Shah-name".
Until recently, the social model in Sindh was largely tribal, with Sindhi Vadera taking over as the Arab sheikh. Arab virtues such as hospitality have always distinguished Sindh, and the standard of the Arab scholarship has also remained high. Even the landscape, until the recent construction of the two barriers in the Upper and Lower Sindh, contained many reminders of Arabia - the desert, the pastoral scene, many large groves of date palms and camel ropes.
In two important areas, Arab influence, as we have seen, was felt far beyond Sindh and Multan. By the time Muslim rule was established in Lahore and Delhi, Islamic law was codified and contained strict provisions regarding idolaters.
The fate of Yezdegerd, like the last Achaemenid king Darius III, turned out to be sad - he fled to one of the vassal rulers and was killed by him. In 651, the Arabs conquered eastern Iran and conquered Central Asian Merv. Many noble Iranians recognized Arab domination, retaining their possessions and even positions.
Starting from the reign of the third caliph - Osman (644-656) - all power in the caliphate was in the hands of the relatives and close associates of the caliph, who seized the lands in the conquered countries. The dissatisfaction of ordinary Arab community members with the rise of the nobility was used by Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, who organized the assassination of Osman and was proclaimed the fourth caliph. Ali was proclaimed the only true caliph. Shiites - supporters of Ali - subsequently formed a special direction of Islam, widespread in Iran and Iraq. However, Ali continued the policy of strengthening the position of the nobility and lost many of his adherents, who became Kharijites - supporters of the preservation of communal equality. In 661, Ali was killed by one of the Kharijites. The throne was seized by the governor of Syria Mu'awiya from the Umayyah clan, who founded the Umayyad dynasty. He moved the capital of the Caliphate to Damascus. Under him, the registration of the personal property of the caliph (savafi) and the property of large and small landowners (mulk), which was dominant in the Arab Caliphate, was completed. As in Europe, many lands were transferred into the ownership of military leaders for service. Slave labor was now used only in construction, mining, and household chores. For the most part, prisoners became slaves. The main work was carried out by dependent peasants who paid haraj - land tax.
The fact that these provisions were not respected and that the Hindus were considered "people of the book" was largely due to the fact that they were given this status by Muhammad ibn Qasim, and that over the centuries this liberal practice was established in Sindh and Multan. The second major consequence of the Arab conquest of Sindh - cultural and intellectual contacts - came to an end when Baghdad lost political control over the area. Arabic literature henceforth looked somewhere other than India for inspiration, and Sanskrit writings were no longer translated by Hindu scholars in Baghdad.
The Caliphate was constantly expanding due to new conquests. By the end of the VII century. the Arabs subjugated part of Armenia, South Azerbaijan, Kabul and part of North Africa. By 711, the African possessions of Byzantium to the west of Egypt were completely captured, which received the Arabic name Maghreb - "west" (modern Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco). The commander Jebel al-Tariq crossed the Strait of Hercules, named after him (Gibraltar), and in 714 conquered most of the Visigoth possessions in Spain. Another military leader, Kuteiba, colluded with the nobility Central Asia frightened by the performances of the lower classes, he subdued Khorezm and Bukhara to the caliphate, and in 715 - Samarkand. but local population, who always defended its independence, rebelled against the Arab governors for several decades. The uprising of 721 with its centers in Penjikent and Khojent is especially famous, some of the participants of which went to the mountains. Strong resistance was shown to the Arabs in the Transcaucasus. Only in the 20s. VIII century Eastern Georgia... In the east, the Indus Valley was conquered.
Although the Arab conquest was limited southern part of what is now West Pakistan, peaceful contacts were much more extensive. Arab sailors and traders used their trade along the coast, and soon after Islam we find colonies of Muslim Arabs in a number of major ports such as Kambay, Chaul and Honawar. Muslims reached Ceylon even earlier, and the Arab invasion of Sindh was, as we have seen, a measure of retaliation for the robbery and imprisonment of Muslim widows and orphans returning from Ceylon.
Hajaj, who organized the expedition to Sindh, was also indirectly responsible for the creation of a large colony of Muslim Arabs in the south. When he became the governor of Iraq, many political enemies fled from his jurisdiction, seeking refuge on the southern coast of the subcontinent. They form the core of the important Navajat community found on the Konkan coast in Bombay and in the Tinnevelli area of Madras. Others have settled along the Bay of Bengal, where Muslim presence can be traced back to the eighth century.
As a result, by the middle of the VIII century. possessions Arab Caliphate stretched from Atlantic Ocean to the Pamir and Hindu Kush mountains, from the Sahara to the Aral Sea region and Derbent in Dagestan - the "iron gates" of the East. It was a state located simultaneously in Asia, Africa and Europe. However, the period of the victorious campaigns of conquest couldn't last forever. In 732, at Poitiers in Gaul, the Arabs were defeated by the Franks led by Karl Martell. In 737, the commander Mervan, who defeated the Khazars in the North Caucasus, reached the "great Slavic river" (Don) and turned back. Finally, in 751, the advance of the Arabs near the city of Talas (now Dzhambul in Kazakhstan) on the Great Silk Road was stopped by the Chinese.
Gradually, the Arab conquerors adopted a higher ancient culture conquered countries. Already under the Umayyads, trade revives, cities grow; Byzantine masters build palaces, mosques and country castles in Syria, the main Muslim shrine of Jerusalem - the Omar Mosque.
The Arabic language is gradually becoming the language of office work (at first, in the possession of the Caliphate, they used Greek and Persian - Pahlavi - languages), the language of literature, science, and book scholarship. At the same time, in the Caliphate, in contrast to Europe, the traditions of ancient culture were preserved.
In 750, after an uprising led by Shiites and Kharijites, the Umayyads were overthrown and the descendants of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, the Abbasids, seized power. The Abbasids suppressed the most determined popular uprisings and moved the capital to Iraq, where they felt more confident. In 762, Caliph Mansur founded on the Tigris River in the center of Iraq, not far from the ruins of ancient Babylon, Seleucia and Ctesiphon - the capital of the Sassanids - new town Baghdad.
The Baghdad period became the time of the greatest luxury of the caliphs. Medina al-Salam - "the city of the world" - amazed contemporaries with its size, huge market square, gardens and fountains. Here one could meet merchants who brought incense from India, silk from South China, furs from Slavic lands (the beloved wife of Caliph Garun-ar-Rashid Zuleikh used to wear them). Sailors and caravan men brought amazing stories about various parts of the Old World. Needless to say, these brilliant times have long been preserved in the memory of the creators of Scheherazade's fairy tales, who turned the most famous Baghdad Caliph into a legendary and fabulous figure?
However, under the Abbasids, the caliphate was already doomed. The distribution of land to the nobility accelerated their isolation in various countries, and the increase in taxes caused a new wave of peasant and urban uprisings. The popular movement in Azerbaijan and Iran under the leadership of the camel driver Babek literally shook the Caliphate, which was suppressed with difficulty after 21 years. The central government could no longer keep track of everything that was happening in the huge power. Even after the seizure of power by the Abbasids, Spain broke away from the Caliphate, where the descendant of the Umayyads established himself, who became the Emir of Cordoba. Soon the emirates (the original meaning of the word "emir" - the governor of the caliph) of Morocco, East Maghreb also separated from Baghdad. The intensification of repression against the conquered peoples and intolerance of non-Muslims led to the loss of control over Transcaucasia, Central Asia, and eastern Iran. In Central Asia in 819 a state of emirs was formed from the Samanid dynasty, who made Bukhara their capital. In Armenia in 860 the Arabs were defeated by the troops of the commander Theodoros Rshituni. The inhabitants of the mountainous region of Sasun fought especially bravely. These events are described in the Armenian folk epic "David of Sasun". Finally, Egypt also became independent. And the Iranian ruler took Baghdad in 945, leaving the Caliph only spiritual power over all Muslims. A time of fragmentation and instability has come in the East.
Despite the fact that the huge Arab state ceased to exist, Islam has established itself for centuries on the vast territory that was once ruled by the caliphs. Only Armenia and Georgia, where there were already ancient Christian traditions, did not accept him from the countries of the Caliphate. Belief in one Allah was also taken in their interests by the rulers of distant countries - Volga Bulgaria, kingdoms West Africa, cities of Malacca and the islands of Maharaja (Indonesia). There was a concept " Arab world". The inhabitants of the countries that entered it from Morocco to Iraq, including Egypt and Syria, learned the Arabic language and mixed with the natives of Arabia who settled on their lands, with whom they were brought closer by related languages and some customs. Other peoples, for example, Iranians and Tajiks, preserved their cultural identity, using the Arabic language only as the language of religion and science and creating a literary language - Farsi, but with the Arabic script. began to play in Spain, and the doctors of Central Asia began to use African aloe.Syrian translators made the works of Plato and Aristotle understandable for all educated Muslims, and translators familiar with the culture of India - the works of the mathematician Aryabhata and collections of animal fables. the caliphate will be accepted by the Europeans as well.
§ 9. The conquests of the Arabs and the creation of the Arab Caliphate
The beginning of the aggressive campaigns of the Arabs
The death of Muhammad led to uprisings by opponents of the Islamic state, which broke out in different parts of Arabia. However, these uprisings were quickly suppressed, and the Muslims began to conquer other countries. The main opponents of the Arabs were the Byzantine Empire and Iran.
Arabic warrior
Muhammad also sent a message to the Byzantine emperor with an appeal to convert to Islam. It said: “Submit (convert to Islam) and you will be saved. Allah will reward you twice. O people of the Scripture! Unite around the common Word for us and you! " The Constantinople ruler did not consider it necessary to answer the prophet, but soon he felt the power of the Muslims weapon. The Byzantine army was unable to withstand the onslaught of the Arab cavalry, inspired by the new religion. Muslims gladly accepted death, hoping to taste the heavenly bliss promised by the prophet.
Military successes of Muslims
During the campaigns of conquest, the army of the Arabs led by the caliphs subjugated richest countries The Middle East. Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia were taken away by him from the Byzantines. The Arabs captured the largest city in Syria, Damascus and sacred city Christians and Jews by Jerusalem. After several defeats, the Iranian state ceased to exist. In Africa, the Arabs took over Egypt. The Byzantine army was unable to resist the conquerors even here. The largest city of Egypt, Alexandria, surrendered without a fight to the Muslims, who promised not to touch Christian churches for a rich ransom. Of their eastern dominions, the Byzantine emperors managed to preserve only Asia Minor. The Arabs besieged Constantinople more than once, but could not take it.
Muslims storm a fortress in Syria. Medieval drawing
Subduing himself North Africa, the Arabs at the beginning of the VIII century crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and landed in Spain. A small army of Arabs defeated the army of the Visigoth king. Despite stubborn resistance, the cities of the Visigoths fell one after another. By 718, all of Spain, except for a small area in the north of the country, was in the hands of the Arabs. Then they invaded the limits Frankish kingdom and were only stopped by Karl Martell at the Battle of Poitiers.
Remember in what era and by whom the city of Alexandria was founded.
By the middle of the VIII century, as a result of the conquests, a huge Muslim state arose - the Arab Caliphate. It included lands with fertile soils - Egypt and Mesopotamia, which were previously the granaries of Ancient Rome and Byzantium. The Arabs captured all the gold deposits known at that time. They took control of the sea and land trade routes connecting Mediterranean markets with countries Of the Far East, Central Asia, hinterlands of Africa. All this made the Caliphate the richest state in the world.
Campaigns and conquests of the Arabs. Arab Caliphate
The first caliphs and schism in Islam
The first caliphs in their way of life differed little from ordinary Muslims. Like the Prophet Muhammad, they possessed secular and spiritual authority. During the period of the conquests, the caliphs were supposed to be military leaders. Caliph Omar (634–644) became famous for his talent as a commander. He was reputed to be a harsh but just ruler who did not seek personal enrichment, although the Arab army took possession of huge treasures.
Omar Mosque in Jerusalem
After the death of Omar, Osman (644–656) was elected caliph. The new caliph came from a clan initially hostile to Muhammad, but then converted to Islam. When distributing the wealth captured during the campaigns and appointing to important positions, Osman gave preference to his relatives. The governors of the conquered areas, who had real military power, listened less and less to the caliph who lived in Medina. The Muslim nobility organized a conspiracy against Osman, and the caliph was killed on the doorstep of his own house. At the same time, the blood of the ruler got on the list of the Koran, which he held in his hands.
Even more dramatic events unfolded during the reign of Caliph Ali (656–661). The internecine war and the subsequent assassination of Ali led to the split of Muslims into warring factions - Sunnis and Shiites. After Ali's death in 661, the governor of Syria declared himself the caliph. He did not go to Mecca or Medina, but remained in Damascus, founding the Umayyad dynasty.
The inner life of the Arab Caliphate
At the end of the 7th century, the caliphs from the “deputies” of the prophet Muhammad turned into unlimited rulers, and their power from elective became hereditary. In the hands of the caliphs, the untold wealth was concentrated, flowing from the conquered countries. Every year, tons of silver and gold arrived in their capital in the form of tribute. The rulers could dispose of them at their discretion. The Muslim nobility, which consisted not only of Arabs, but also of representatives of other peoples inhabiting the Caliphate, had a great influence on the affairs of the state. Noble Muslim commanders and governors of the provinces quickly forgot the calls of the Prophet Muhammad to despise wealth and share their property with the poor. Imitating the nobles of the occupied countries, they erected magnificent palaces filled with treasures.
Trade in a Muslim bazaar. Medieval drawing
The lands conquered by the Arabs were declared the property of the entire Muslim community. People who lived on these lands had to pay land tax or convert to Islam. In the conquered lands, the Arabs at first did not forcibly force the local population to become Muslims. The "People of the Book" - Christians and Jews, who recognized one God, were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, but they had to pay a special poll tax. The Muslims were intolerant of the pagans: on pain of extermination, they were offered to convert to Islam. It was beneficial for the population of the conquered countries to convert to the new faith, since it was immediately exempt from taxes. Muslims paid only alms to the poor.
Why were Muslims tolerant of the faith of Christians and Jews?
However, after a few decades, the attitude of Muslims towards people of other religions changed, and their oppression began. One of the caliphs issued a decree in which he ordered Christians and Jews to “wear from now on a yellow dress; do not wear a white dress, so as not to be like Muslims; to destroy the newly built temples, to double the total tax; do not allow them to enter Muslim baths ... do not take Muslims for personal services ... ". A Christian who dared to strike a Muslim was subjected to the death penalty.
Caliph Harun al-Rashid with his entourage. Medieval miniature
What has changed in the attitude of Muslims towards representatives of other religions?
Collapse of the Arab Caliphate
The Umayyad rule caused discontent among the people, which was taken advantage of by the opponents of the Caliphs. In 750, the power of the Umayyads was overthrown, and they themselves were exterminated. The new rulers of the Muslim state were the Abbasids, who made the capital of the Caliphate the city of Baghdad on the Tigris River in Mesopotamia. In the VIII-IX centuries, the Arab Caliphate reached the pinnacle of its power. However, the decline of this power was already close. About 80 million people lived on the lands of the Caliphate. The majority of the population were conquered peoples who converted to Islam. It was difficult to govern such a large state, and the caliphs retained their power only by force of arms. Here and there, riots and uprisings broke out that shattered the Islamic state. His strength was also undermined by the ongoing feud between Sunnis and Shiites. The governors of remote provinces refused to obey the authority of the Baghdad Caliph and did not send him the tribute he was supposed to. Gradually, they created their own independent states.
Muslim warriors. Arab miniature
Gradually, by the 10th century, the Caliphate lost most of its possessions, retaining under its rule only the lands around Baghdad. Having become a mere toy in the hands of their army, the caliphs lost secular power, retaining their authority only in matters of religion. In place of a huge power, many Muslim states arose, in which Arabic was spoken. Despite the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the faith of the Prophet Muhammad spread far beyond the borders of Arabia. It was carried to the countries of Asia, Africa, Europe not only by warriors, but also by merchants and preachers.
Using the map, list the countries and peoples conquered by the Arabs. What are the places of the most important victories and major defeats of the Arabs?
Muslim culture
The culture of the Arab Caliphate and the states that emerged in its place was closely related to the Muslim religion.
Education in the madrasah. Arabic drawing
Learning to read, write, and arithmetic was considered essential for understanding and mastering the Qur'an. His text was memorized, trying to apply the wisdom of this book in all situations of life. Primary schools were created to teach children 5-10 years old.
The state took care of the education of its subjects. By order of the caliphs, madrasah, where teenagers and adults continued their education.
Muslim library. Medieval drawing
They gathered around a teacher who read ancient texts and works of scholars, explaining incomprehensible places... The madrasah studied the history and foundations of Islam, mathematics, medicine, geometry and other sciences.
Pages from an Arabic manuscript on medicine
The respect for knowledge displayed by Muslims was combined with intolerance towards anything that, in their opinion, was contrary to Islam. Often during the conquests, Muslims destroyed and destroyed what they considered alien to their faith. At the court of the caliphs in Baghdad and in other large cities, "Houses of Wisdom" arose - a kind of academies of sciences. Here, scholars were engaged in translations into Arabic of the writings of the authors. different countries and eras, including the famous sages of antiquity: Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes. It was the Arabs who introduced some of these works to medieval Europeans.
Remember what Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes were famous for.
Trade and travel made the Arabs geographers. On their maps and in geographical writings contained a description of all areas of the then Muslim world from Spain to India. Muslims knew about China, Korea, Siberia. The writings "Wonders of the countries", "Wonders of the Earth", in the "Book of Ways and States", as well as in the "Book of the Picture of the Earth" contained details about nature, peoples, cities, occupations of inhabitants of various lands.
Miniature from an Arabic book
From distant India, Arab scientists borrowed a convenient decimal system of counting, adopting the numbers from the Indians, which we still call Arabic. The science of algebra, which also appeared in India, became known in Europe under the Arabic name "al-jabr".
Great Mosque in Damascus. VIII century
Far beyond the borders of the Muslim world, the name of the scientist Ibn Sina, who lived in the late 10th - early 11th centuries, was known (in Europe his name was Avicenna). He penned the medical works "The Book of Healing" and "The Canon of Medicine".
The fusion of various cultural streams led to the emergence of Muslim poetry. She glorified victories in battles, lofty feelings of love, joy of life.
The Arabs loved to listen and tell stories. Wandering storytellers collected, composed and brought fantastic stories to different parts of the Muslim world. Gradually they compiled a huge collection called "A Thousand and One Nights." It includes tales not only of Arabs, but also of Greeks, Persians, Indians and other peoples. The most famous are the stories about the brave Baghdad merchant Sindbad the sailor, who made his risky journeys to distant countries.
View of the city of Aleppo in Syria. Medieval drawing
The laws of the Muslim religion prohibit portraying God. Therefore, on the walls of buildings, in books, you can see only intricate patterns and ornaments made up of Arabic letters folding into words. Often these were quotes from the Koran or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. In the Muslim East, widespread calligraphy. The Arabic language and the Arabic script were known in all countries whose inhabitants professed Islam.
Let's sum up
Arab conquests led to the emergence of a huge Arab Caliphate. In the countries that made it up, the life of people was organized in accordance with the requirements of the Islamic religion. Muslim Arabs sought to expand their knowledge of the world around them. They created a special world of culture, which was closely related to the Muslim religion. Many of the achievements of the scientists of the Arab Caliphate surpassed the level of science of the European countries of that time.
Sunnis - supporters of one of the groups in Islam, who honor not only the Koran, but also the oral tradition of the deeds and sayings of Muhammad - Sunna.Shiites - supporters of one of the groups in Islam, who recognize the Koran as the only holy book, who consider only Ali and his descendants to be the legitimate caliph.
Madrasah - educational institution in Islamic countries.
Calligraphy - the art of beautiful and clear writing.
661 years. The beginning of the reign of the Umayyad dynasty.750 A.D. The overthrow of the Umayyads, the beginning of the rule of the Abbasid dynasty.
"All knowledge is ultimately associated with religion and is acquired in the name of Allah."Prophet Muhammad
one*. Tell us about the course of the Arab conquests. Why did the Muslim Arabs manage to quickly conquer many countries of the East?
2. What was the attitude of the Arabs towards the conquered peoples? How has it changed? Why?
3. What kind of authority did the caliphs have?
4. What changes have occurred in Arab state by the 10th century compared to the time of the first caliphs?
5. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate.
6. What influence did Islam have on the culture of the Arab Caliphate?
7. What knowledge was most appreciated by Muslim scholars? Why do you think?
8. Which of scientific knowledge Did the Europeans take it from the Muslims?
1. The famous book of fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights" tells about the conversation between the Caliph and the scientist girl. "Oh Tavaddud, what sciences do you know well?" - asked the caliph. The girl replied: “I know grammar, poetry, jurisprudence, interpretation of the Koran and vocabulary, I am familiar with music and the science of inheritance shares, and counting, and division, and surveying, and the legends of the first people ... I studied exact sciences, and geometry, and philosophy , and healing, and logic, and rhetoric, and explanation, and remembered much of theology. I was committed to poetry and played the lute, found out where the sounds are on it, and I know how to strike the strings so that they are in motion or at rest ... science ".
Name the sciences that were familiar to the Arab girl. Which of them are considered sciences today?
2. Using the text of the paragraph and illustrations, compose a story about life in a medieval Muslim city using the words: caliph, palace, mosque, minaret, madrasah, bazaar.
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