According to most historians, the process of state formation among the Eastern Slavs began in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. and basically ended at the end of the 9th century. in connection with the unification of Kiev and Novgorod in 882
The problem of the formation of the Old Russian state was posed back in the "Tale of Bygone Years" and is associated with the emergence of a ruling dynasty in Russia. The Russian chronicler of the beginning of the XII century, trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, included in the chronicle the legend of the vocation as princes of three Varangians - brothers: Rurik, Sineus and Truvor.
According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state, the northern tribes of the Slavs - the Ilmen Slovenes and their neighbors - paid tribute to the Varangians. But in 859 the tributaries revolted, drove the Varangians across the sea, they themselves began to own land and establish cities, which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes. “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come to reign and own us. Three brothers with their families volunteered, and the elder Rurik sat in Novgorod, the other Sineus - in Beloozero, and the third Truvor - in Izborsk. " Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom, Rurik, laid the foundation for the princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince Oleg, who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kiev in 882. Thus, according to the chronicler, the state of Rus was formed.
On the basis of this chronicle story in Russian historical science, a theory of the origin of the Russian state was formed - Norman theory. Its authors were German scientists G. Bayer and G. Miller, who worked in the middle of the 18th century. at the Russian Academy of Sciences. According to this theory, the founders of the state among the Eastern Slavs were the Varangian Germans, who established their dynasty on the Kiev throne. At the same time, it was especially emphasized that the Slavs themselves, due to their barbarism, were incapable of organizing their own state life.
Against the Norman concept of the origin of the Old Russian state in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov, who argued that the Eastern Slavs in terms of their development were not lower than the Vikings, and the latter did not play any role in the emergence of the Russian state, and Rurik himself was not a German, but a Slav from the Baltic coast of Prussia - Po-Rusia, or, as indicated in the Novgorod chronicle of the 15th century, the grandson of the Novgorod elder Gostomysl, that is, in any case, he had a Slavic origin.
Throughout all subsequent centuries, the struggle between Normans and anti-Normans was the leading trend in the study of the origin of the state among the Eastern Slavs. Normanism in Russia was recognized as the official version, and many leading historians of the 19th - early 20th centuries. - N. Karamzin, M. Pogodin, V. Klyuchevsky - generally accepted the concept of the Normanists.
Soviet historians - B. Grekov, S. Yushkov, M. Tikhomirov - saw the reasons for the emergence of the Old Russian state in the internal socio-economic development of Slavic society, but the Scandinavian Varangians, in their opinion, accelerated the process of formation of the Old Russian statehood. In foreign literature, on the contrary, in the XX century. dominated by the Norman view of the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
Recently, a number of researchers have drawn attention to the fact that among the Eastern Slavs the emergence of the state preceded the process of class formation. Considering the state as a means of integration and stabilization of ancient Russian society, some of them emphasize that the external (Varangian) factor played a very important role in this process. Contemporary researchers believe that the Old Russian state as a single territorial whole with a center in Kiev was formed in the so-called "Varangian period", that is, in the second half of the 9th century, as a result of the integration of two main centers - in the south of the union of the Polyan tribes with the center in Kiev and in the north -western Slovenian with the center in Novgorod.
According to historians, the Eastern Slavs had stable traditions of statehood long before the Varangians were called. Having exerted a significant influence on the formation of princely power, the development of culture, the Varangians did not bring statehood to Russia, since it arose in the depths of ancient Russian society. The first pre-state formations - tribal reigns - arose among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th – 9th centuries. Eastern authors were also aware of these princes, who wrote about Kuyab and Slavia - the Kiev and Novgorod lands. The chronicle story about Rurik is not about the creation of a state in Russia, but about the emergence of the Varangian dynasty in the Novgorod land. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The formation of the Old Russian state is a natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system among one and a half dozen Slavic tribal unions that lived on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
Unlike states Western Europe, which in their formation inherited many state and legal traditions of antiquity, Eastern Europe found itself outside its framework. This explains the relatively slow rates of maturation of state institutions and their originality. Many researchers associate with the ruling Varangian dynasty such a feature of the Old Russian state as the ladder of succession to the throne.
Until 882, there were two political centers of Ancient Rus: Novgorod, where Rurik ruled, and Kiev, where the Kiev dynasty ruled. In 882, a relative of Rurik, Prince Oleg with his retinue went on a campaign to Kiev, killed the local princes Askold and Dir. He called Kiev "Mother of the Russian city" and settled there. During the reign of Oleg (879 - 912), the territory of the state expanded - it included the lands of the Ilmen Slovens, Smolensk and Polotsk Krivichi, Finno-Ugric peoples (all, merya, Chud), Drevlyans, northerners and Radimichs. During this period, the administrative apparatus was formed. Oleg sent his governors to Novgorod, Smolensk, Lyubech, or relied on tribal leaders. The collection of tribute in the conquered lands was carried out according to the traditional system - "from the smoke", that is, from the peasant household through the polyudye - bypassing the subordinate lands. Part of the collected tribute was subsequently sent along the Dnieper and the Black Sea to Constantinople - for sale.
Thus, in the newly-created state, all its attributes were formed as a new socio-political structure - a single territory, administrative apparatus, tax system, legislation (the ancient code of laws of Russia is "Russian Truth", adopted by Yaroslav the Wise).
Initially, the state included lands along the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The policy of uniting the Slavic lands was continued by Prince Igor (912 - 945) and Princess Olga (945 - 964), who annexed the lands of the Ulitsy, Tivertsy, and Drevlyans. Prince Svyatoslav (964 - 972) extended the power of Kiev to the lands of the Vyatichi between the Oka and the Volga. The formation of the state territory of Ancient Rus was completed during the reign of Prince Vladimir (980 - 1015), who annexed the "Cherven cities" and Carpathian Rus. At the beginning of the XI century, Ancient Russia united all the East Slavic tribes and turned into the largest state of medieval Europe. The greatest prosperity of the Old Russian state reached under Prince Yaroslav the Wise.
From the point of view of the socio-political structure, the Old Russian state was an early feudal monarchy - a sole form of government that took shape during the formation of feudalism. Its peculiarity consisted in the preservation of some traditions of the era of "military democracy", such as the veche and the people's militia.
Another feature of the Old Russian monarchy was the ladder order of inheritance of princely power. The throne passed not from father to son, but by seniority in the family - from brother to brother. Therefore, in the event of the death of a prince, all members of the so-called Rurik dynasty began to move from throne to throne.
The head of state was the eldest of the Rurikovich family - the great Kiev prince - the collector and protector of the territory, the main legislator, the supreme judge, the main recipient and distributor of taxes (tribute). The Grand Duke was the owner of his domain - the princely villages, the economy of which had a commercial (hunting for furs and other gifts of the forest) and horse breeding (to meet military needs). The power of the Grand Duke was based on the socio-political support of the boyars and squads. The princely power was the central element in the state. The Kiev prince acted as the supreme judge and legislator, ruler and protector of the land. He was in charge of external and domestic politics... The princely power was entrusted with the protection of the interests of society as a whole, the maintenance of a kind of social balance, allowing to avoid disastrous shocks, the defense of the land. The Kiev prince ruled, seating his sons and relatives in the lands-volosts. Within his volost, such a prince had great rights: he ruled, judged, collected tribute.
The boyars formed from the tribal nobility, who seized the best communal lands and turned them into fiefdoms, in which dependent farmers and artisans worked. The enrichment of the boyars was also facilitated by participation in military campaigns, which made it possible to obtain a certain share of military booty. Boyars were also called the most authoritative "senior" warriors who were included in the permanent council of the prince - the Duma. In the XIII century. along with the princely villages, boyar villages also appeared. The "princely men" "sit down" on the ground. The emergence of hereditary fiefdoms led to a change in the social interests of the boyars. They are inextricably linked with large land ownership and with the local prince, who cares about the prosperity of his land parish.
The squad - a permanent armed organization - existed by collecting tribute from the conquered tribes and military booty. V Peaceful time she accompanied trade caravans and helped the prince suppress popular unrest. The squad was divided into "senior" and "young". From the "senior" was formed the highest administrative apparatus - members of the Boyar Duma; mayors and governors who exercised power at the local level; ambassadors and military leaders. The "younger" squad (greedy, youths) consisted of ordinary soldiers. The squad helped the prince to rule the country, control trade routes, collect tributes and taxes, defend and expand the territories under his control.
The bulk of the agricultural and handicraft population remained free. Legally free people were part of the neighboring community - the rope. The community distributed land between families, maintained public order, paid fines (vira) for the faults of its members, and also paid tribute to the Grand Duke for protection from nomads and granting the right to use land, since in the people's minds he was the supreme owner of all land.
For various reasons, part of the population fell into dependence. The most dependent group is slaves (slaves, servants). Prisoners of war and impoverished community members who sold themselves into slavery became slaves. Marriage to a slave and service with a master without a special contract also led to slavery. Slaves were used both for field work and as farm managers (tiuns, firemen, key keepers). The slave was completely powerless, the owner could even kill him. Other categories of the dependent population included purchases and ryadovichi - free communes who fell into bondage. Working off the debt on the land of the master, the purchases kept their economy. Smerds lived and worked in the domain of princes and boyars. Probably, this was the name of the peasants dependent on the landowners.
Until the middle of the X century. paganism remained the dominant religion of Russia. However, with the complication of social life and the social structure of society, with the formation of an ethnically heterogeneous state, paganism as a religious system turned out to be unable to ideologically substantiate the ongoing changes, to unite society. Power and society acquired an early feudal character, while spiritual and moral relations were built in accordance with the tribal ones.
During this period, Christianity began to spread in the Russian lands. The annals contain stories about the baptisms of certain groups of the population of Russia (during the time of Askold and Dir, Cyril and Methodius, Princess Olga). At the time of Igor, there were already many Christians in Kiev, the Church of St. Elijah was built. After Olga's baptism, Christianization proceeded at a faster pace. The ties of the Kiev court with Western Christians show that at that time Russia did not want to be guided by any one of the parties: good relations were maintained with both the Byzantine and Roman churches.
In 988, under Vladimir I, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. This was due to a number of reasons. First, the interests of the developing state demanded this. To remain a pagan outskirts in the Christian world meant isolation from the entire European community of countries. Secondly, the new monotheistic religion (monotheism) corresponded to the essence of the new unified state headed by the monarch. Thirdly, Christianity cemented the family, the cell of society, introduced a new morality, demanded a humane attitude towards women, mothers, children, and people in general. This could not but contribute to the progress of society. Fourthly, the introduction to Christianity could help in the development of culture, the spiritual life of the country.
Vladimir, being baptized himself, baptized his boyars, and then all the people. The spread of Christianity often met with resistance from the population, who venerated their pagan gods. Christianity took root slowly. The Orthodox Church had to wage a stubborn struggle against pre-Christian beliefs. The layers of popular pagan consciousness were so powerful that Christianity adopted and adapted some of its features.
The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of Russia. The establishment of Christianity in Russia as a state religion is a major event. historical significance... The ancient Russian state strengthened its economic, political, dynastic and cultural ties with Byzantium and Western Europe, overcame isolationism caused by religious differences. Kievan Rus became a Christian state, integrating into the family of Christian nations and states.
Christianity was even more important for the establishment of a new social system. The elimination of local, tribal differences accelerated, which contributed to ethnic consolidation. Orthodox institutions found themselves in close connection with the early feudal state and monarchy, giving them the character of a divine establishment, sacredness. The country was introduced to Christian values, on the basis of which fundamentally new relations began to form, cultural and spiritual life began to develop.
At the same time, Christianity was adopted in its Byzantine, future Orthodox, version, which subsequently led to the emergence of opposite tendencies - political and cultural alienation from Western Europe, the approval of a different model historical development... With the adoption of Christianity, the church and church hierarchy began to form, which took an important place in ancient Russian society. Monastic land tenure also emerged, significantly inferior to the land tenure of the bishops' cathedrals.
As you know, the Old Russian state arose on the trade route, which was also called "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Tribes such as the Krivichi, Ilmenian Slavs, Glades, Dregovichi, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Polochani and Northerners lived on the territory of the newly formed state.
The very first documentary mention of such an ethnonym as "Rus" appears closer to the 9th century. According to historians, the ethnonym "Kievan Rus" appeared only in XVIII-XIX centuries in documentary research.
The first capital of Russia
The period of foundation of such a state as Ancient Russia is the VIII century. Along with the emergence of the state, the first capital of Ancient Russia, Ladoga, appeared. Memories of this city are described in the Ipatiev list of the "Tale of Bygone Years". As you know, Ladoga belonged to Rurik, and the estimated dates of Ladoga's stay in the status of the capital of the state are 862-864. It was during these years that Rurik was constantly in the capital, and after it was renamed Novaya Ladoga (modern Leningrad region).
It is also worth mentioning that most scientists do not recognize Ladoga as the first capital of Ancient Rus, therefore, it is practically not mentioned in the main scientific works related to the emergence of Ancient Rus. Nevertheless, one should not forget that many sources indicate precisely that Ladoga is the first capital of Russia.
The first capital of Russia - Novgorod
According to other chronicles, the first capital of Russia was Novgorod (862-882). It is believed that from the beginning of 862 Rurik ruled Russia precisely while in Veliky Novgorod. But, in spite of this, nevertheless, since 882, the capital again changes its location and is transferred to Kiev. Nevertheless, Veliky Novgorod continues to be of great political importance for the state. According to ancient princely traditions, the eldest sons of the prince went to rule in Novgorod, therefore, rivalry between these two capitals continued, which was a striking feature the old Russian state in all periods of its existence. As a result, it is still not completely clear which city was the capital of Russia. The controversy continues to this day.
The first capital of Kievan Rus
After Oleg came to power, Kiev became the capital of the Old Russian state, which is why the state began to be called Kievan Rus. At this moment, Novgorod loses its power and authority. After the baptism of Rus (the beginning of the 10th century), Kiev finally made it clear that it was the capital, since the main metropolitan lived there. This fact played a big role in the development of the city and the state itself.
In addition to political convictions, Kiev was also convenient with geographic point vision. It was on the land of the Drevlyans and had a very convenient location, thanks to which it served as the capital of Russia for many years, or rather for 361 years (from 882 to 1243).
From the end of the XII century and up to the beginning of the XIII century, Russia was divided into four main centers: Volyn, Smolensk, Suzdal (Vladimir) and Chernigov. Despite the fact that each center had its own main ruler, they still remained dependent on the Kiev principality. Only the heir of Rurik had the right to occupy the princely throne that was in Kiev, but the dynasty was interrupted, since the struggle for the Kiev throne was very fierce and everyone wanted to get the largest "piece" of power over all other principalities. Fratricidal wars led Kiev to fall, but it still continued to be the center of interests of the entire ancient Russian state.
In the XII century Kiev continued to be the capital of Rus, but it gradually lost its role as the center of the state. The Grand Duke no longer needed to be located in Kiev, and since 1169 Kiev was subordinate to one of the relatives of the Grand Duke. The tradition of Kiev rule was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongols. After the destruction, the city finally lost its value, and they stopped fighting for it. After that, the city was ruled only by weak princes who did not pursue the throne.
Capital of Ancient Rus - Vladimir
The city of Vladimir itself appeared in 1108, and Vladimir Monomakh became its founder. A few years later, Vladimir began to be considered the capital of North-Eastern Russia, and before that the capital was the city of Suzdal. The reason for such changes was the desire of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky to transfer all his possessions from Suzdal to Vladimir, in order to turn this city into the same influential political and economic center as Kiev. For the same reason architectural features Vladimir are very similar to those in Kiev.
Many scientists argue to this day whether Vladimir was the capital of all Russia, or only its North-Eastern part. The city of Vladimir reached the peak of its power during the reign of Vsevolod Yuryevich, and after that it was forgotten, since Kievan Rus was under the influence of the Golden Horde. After Golden Horde captured Ancient Russia, the khan called the Vladimir princes the main rulers of the state, and starting in 1299 the metropolitan's residence moved to Vladimir. The last ruler of Vladimir was Vasily I, and his heirs were already crowned in Moscow. But, despite this, although Vladimir has become an ordinary province, it is still mentioned in the annals for a long time as a city of great national importance.
Moscow is the first capital in Russia
The earliest mentions of Moscow date back to 1147. Until the moment when the Mongols attacked Kiev, and the Golden Horde gained power over Kievan Rus, Moscow did not play any role. The city was considered an ordinary province, but from the beginning of 1263, when Daniil Alexandrovich began to rule in Moscow, it began to develop very quickly. Although Prince Daniel did not claim the princely throne, he was not going to just sit back. With the help of the Smolensk and Ryazan volosts, Daniel increased his territories, thanks to which the prince managed to gather a strong army. It was this step that became a huge impetus for the future.
Since 1325, the residence of the metropolitan is based in Moscow, the territory of the Moscow princes is significantly increasing, due to which the quantity and quality of the Moscow army is growing. But despite such rapid development, due to the oppression of the Mongol Khan, she had a very precarious position. Only disagreements with the Golden Horde gave the Moscow princes a chance to increase their political influence, and the turning point was the victory of Moscow over the Horde army of Mamai in 1380, also known as the Battle of Kulikovo. After that, Moscow finally became the capital of Russia, and today the Russian Federation.
Ancient Moscow of the 17th century. An educational film about the history of the capital of ancient Russia.
The territory of the Old Russian state took shape for a long time. The first stage of the unification of the territory can be conditionally limited to 862–882. Until the middle of the IX century. some East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes were forced to pay tribute to their stronger neighbors. Under 859, the PVL reports that the Varangians "from overseas" levied tribute from the Chudi, Ilmen Slovenes, Meri and Krivichi, and the Khazars from the Glades, Northerners and Vyatichi (another entry says that until 885 the Khazars were paid tribute and Radimichi ). The beginning of the consolidation of the territory of Rus was laid by the events described under 862, when, refusing to pay tribute to the Varangians, the northern union of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes called (also from the Varangians, but apparently from a different tribe) Rurik and his brothers. The word "Rus" originally, according to the chronicler, was the name of the Varangian tribe, from which Rurik and his relatives came. In science, disputes still continue about the reliability of both the entire plot about the vocation of the Varangians, and about this interpretation of the term, but the chronicle, describing the events of that time, uses the word "Rus" only to designate the Varangian princes with their retinues.
According to the PVL, the Varangians were summoned to Chud, Slovenia, Krivichi and all. It is interesting that in this plot the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes act together, and they call on the Scandinavian dynasty to rule, that is, the state that was already being formed was polyethnic. The chronicle reports that Rurik (at first with his brothers, and then independently) ruled not only over the four tribes who called him, but also over the Meray and Muroma. The following cities became control centers: Novgorod, Izborsk, Beloozero, Polotsk, Rostov and Murom. Other sources report that the original residence of Rurik was Ladoga. So in the north of Eastern Europe formed a polyethnic proto-state association. At the same time, the warriors Askold and Dir, who separated from Rurik, occupied Kiev and subjugated the glades.
The second stage of the formation of the territory of the Old Russian state began in 882, when Rurik's successor Oleg seized Kiev and established power over the glades, then over the Drevlyans (883), northerners (884) and Radimichs (885). In Oleg's campaign against Constantinople (907), his army mentions (in addition to the previously subordinate tribes) Vyatichi, White Croats, Dulebs and Tivertsy, apparently also falling under his rule at that time. By the end of Oleg's reign in 913, the territory of the state covered the areas of settlement of most of the East Slavic tribes and parts of the Finno-Ugric tribes. Kiev became the capital, and Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Lyubech and Pskov were added to the cities that were the centers of administrative-territorial administration.
The third stage took the X - the first half of the XI century, when the Old Russian state united the territory from to and from the Carpathians to the Middle Volga. The process of subjugating the tribes to the Kiev princes was quite complicated, some of them repeatedly restored their independence for some time. So, the Drevlyans tried twice to set aside from Kiev under Igor (in 913 and 945) and only Olga's cruel reprisals against the rebels in 945-946. finally brought them to submission. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute on the main territory of the state, establishing special points for this in the land of the Drevlyans, in the vicinity of Novgorod (along Msta and Luga), along the Dnieper and Desna. In 966 Svyatoslav subdued and imposed a tribute on the Vyatichi. This prince was active in foreign policy, fought with the Volga Bulgars, the Khazar Khaganate, the Pechenegs and the Byzantine Empire. Since he spent most of his time on campaigns, he used his sons as rulers or governors in certain territories of his state: from 970 Yaropolk sat in Kiev, Oleg among the Drevlyans, Vladimir in Novgorod.
The activities of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015) were of great importance for the design of the state territory. He conquered the Northern Carpathian region, with the cities of Przemysl and Cherven (982), subdued the Yatvingians (983), suppressed the attempts of the Vyatichi (981–982) and Radimichi (984) to eliminate dependence on Kiev. He also used his sons as governors in certain territories. The main centers of administrative management were the cities of Novgorod, Polotsk, Turov, Rostov, Murom, Vladimir Volynsky and Tmutarakan (Tmutarakan). Vladimir took measures to strengthen the defense of Kiev and its surrounding territory, for which in 988-989. Several fortress cities were built on the left bank of the Dnieper along the Desna, Oster, Sula, Trubezh rivers (at the end of the 10th century, the Pechenegs usually approached Kiev along this territory). To the west of Kiev, on the small river Irpen, Belgorod was founded. These fortress cities were inhabited by representatives of various tribes that were part of the state under Vladimir.
The reign of Yaroslav the Wise, who established himself on the Kiev table in 1019, was also marked by the strengthening of the borders of the Russian land. True, at first, internal strife was the main occupation of the princes. In 1026-1036. Russia was generally divided between Yaroslav and his younger brother Mstislav: the lands east of the Dnieper were the volost of Mstislav, who sat in Chernigov, and the right bank belonged to his older brother, the Kiev prince. Only after the death of his brother Yaroslav became the sole ruler of the state. Nevertheless, he constantly took measures to expand and strengthen the boundaries of the subject territory. In 1030, he subdued the Chud (Estonians) and founded Yuryev to the west of Lake Peipsi to govern them. Yaroslavl arose in the same way in the land of the Merin. In 1030-1031. Russian princes, taking advantage of internal strife in the Polish kingdom, invaded its territory north of the Carpathians and occupied several cities (in particular, Belz). The captured Yaroslav began to settle in new fortresses along the Ros, thus creating a barrier from the side of the steppe. Apparently, this helped him in 1036 to inflict a decisive defeat on the Pechenegs, after which they ceased to pose a threat to Russia. At the turn of the 30-40s. XI century the Kiev prince made several campaigns against the tribes in the northwest: the Yatvingians, Lithuania, the Mazovshans (a West Slavic tribe located on the right bank of the Vistula). The result of these campaigns was, as a rule, the collection of tribute and the capture of captives.
Thus, by 1054 the Old Russian state reached its greatest expansion. In the west, the possessions of the Kiev princes entered the lands of the Chudi (Estonians), Letgols, Zimegols and Yatvingians, the Volynians, a significant part of the White lands, obeyed them. The most mobile were the southern and southeastern borders, which was largely facilitated by the raids of the nomads. As part of Russia, the Tmutarakan principality existed, located on the Black coast and, in the lower reaches of the Kuban and on the Kerch Peninsula c. On the left bank of the Dnieper, the state included regions along the Vorskla River, the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets, Oskol and Don. Kievan Rus also included the lands of the Vyatichi, Meshchera, and Murom. Tribute to Kiev was paid by the Zavolochskaya chud and Korela. In the XI century. Slavic colonization covered new territories in the northeast. Cities appeared that served as strongholds for this colonization and the assertion of the power of the Kiev princes over the Finno-Ugric tribes. In the lands of the Merians, Yaroslavl joins Rostov and Suzdal, and the Meshcheras - Ryazan, Pereyaslavl, Ryazansky and Pronsk. From Novgorod the Slavs settled in the lands of Vodi, Obonezhie and Zavolochye.
Geography of the economy of Russia
The main economic occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. It was distributed throughout the territory of Russia and had local differences, determined by both geographical factors and the level of development of agriculture. It should be borne in mind that vast forests lay in the northern part of the East European Plain. The border of this region in the south ran approximately along the line Vladimir Volynsky - Kiev - Novgorod Seversky - the middle course of the Oka - Ryazan. To the south of it, a strip of forest-steppe began, stretching parallel to the forest zone from southwest to northeast. In the left bank of the Dnieper towards the Don, there was less forest, although the forest-steppe zone itself was expanding.
Kievan Rus lay mainly in the zone of podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils. soils are typical only for the Middle Dnieper (south of the Desna). Landscape, soil, climatic conditions in the south, in the region of Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, contributed to the establishment of arable farming here with a transitional or fallow land use system. With a wide distribution throughout the territory of Russia, the plow in the south was also used by a plow and a ral. Northern regions, covering zones of podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils with large forest areas, wetlands, the worst climatic conditions, in general, were less convenient for farming. The possibilities for the development of these lands at that time were limited, therefore, the slash (fire) farming system prevailed in the north for a long time. The main agricultural crops were rye, wheat, barley, millet, and peas. They also sowed flax (mainly in the north), hops and poppy seeds. Gardening and horticulture developed.
Cattle breeding was closely connected with agriculture. Almost all types of domestic animals known today were found in ancient Russian farms. Along with the horse as the main draft force, cows, sheep, pigs, chickens, geese, ducks, etc. were raised. In the development of cattle breeding, as in, there were also some, although not so sharp, differences between the northern and southern regions. Arable farming in the south required the use of ox and horse as draft force on a wider scale than in the north. This, apparently, explains the presence of large herds of cattle and horses in large patrimonial farms in the south, which is noted by the sources.
Significant place in economic activity occupied by hunting, fishing and bee-keeping. Their share was especially great in the northern regions, rich in forests and reservoirs, where agriculture could not fully satisfy the needs of the population. The hunting industry provided the inhabitants not only with food, but also clothes and shoes, which were made from animal skins and fur. The objects of the hunt were tur, elk, bear, deer, wild boar, hare, lynx, fox, sable, marten, ermine, squirrel, arctic fox. The development of the hunting industry was associated with the collection of tribute by the princes with furs, and also with the fact that furs were already a valuable object of trade at that time. A lot of furs were caught in the Novgorod land, in the regions of the Northern Dvina, Pechora, Yugra (polar regions of the Urals). Hunting also developed as a way of free pastime, entertainment for the nobility. This is evidenced, for example, by the colorful description of the hunting exploits of Prince Vladimir Monomakh in his "Instructions for Children".
Fishing played a certain role in the economy of Ancient Rus. Fish occupied a large place in the diet of that time. The adoption of Christianity with its system of fasts and fast days of the week established fish as one of the main components of food. In addition to the main fishing gear - spear, hook, seine, nonsense, during the period of the mass movement of fish from the X-XI centuries. widely used special methods of fishing - "stabbing" and "ezy" (structures that blocked the river). Commercial fishing was carried out in the Dnieper, Seim, Pripyat, Western Dvina, Oka and other rivers. High level reached beekeeping - collecting honey and wax of wild, forest bees.
Handicraft production consisted of more than 60 specialties (processing of iron, non-ferrous metals, wood, stone, leather and furs, making fabrics and clothes, making ceramics, jewelry, etc.) and was divided into rural (rural) and urban. The raw materials for the production and processing of iron were marsh, lacustrine and sod ores, which are widespread in Eastern Europe. The southern border of their distribution coincides with southern border forest-steppe. Iron production was labor-intensive, and it was sourced from areas especially wealthy iron ores... One of these areas was located in the north, between Ladoga and Lake Peipsi... Iron was also produced in the south-west of Russia. It was produced by the raw-blown method in blast furnaces, most of which arose in the immediate vicinity of sources of raw materials, although in a number of places the ore was imported. Iron production mainly developed in the countryside with its subsequent delivery to cities.
In the lands of the Finno-Ugric tribes, which were either part of the Old Russian state, or directly adjacent to it, the extent of the spread of agriculture and its level were not the same everywhere. If in the Murom and Meshchera lands already in the IX century. farming techniques introduced by the Slavs began to prevail, and it was the main occupation of the population, then cattle breeding was the leading one in the economy, although agriculture also took place. Almost everywhere, the role of hunting, fishing, bee-keeping was great, but here, too, some areas stood out in this regard (the lands of the Mordovians and). In the northern and northeastern regions of Eastern Europe, the main occupation of the population - Korel, Sami, Chudi Zavolochskaya, Pechora, Ugra, Perm and others - were hunting, fishing, and partially cattle breeding.
Placement of cities
Ancient Russia was presented to contemporaries as a vast country with a large population living both in rural settlements and in cities. There are a number of difficulties in determining the number of cities and their location. They are connected both with the lack of clarity of the very concept of "city", and with the fact that the location of some cities (which have not survived for a number of reasons) is difficult to establish. It should be borne in mind that the sources contain only fragmentary information about ancient Russian cities, they report about them accidentally and fleetingly, by them it is often impossible to judge even the time of the emergence of a particular city. The very name "city", "city" in Russia meant a fortified settlement, a fenced-in place. In this sense, the chronicles often use the term "city", opposing it to the surrounding "posad" - the unfortified part of the settlement. Sometimes the "city" means the entire settlement in the complex, but in this case, a sine qua non is the presence of fortifications protecting the central part.
According to MN Tikhomirov's calculations, the chronicles testify to the existence in the 9th-10th centuries. 25 cities. Of these, Beloozero, Izborsk, Kiev, Ladoga, Lyubech, Murom, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, Smolensk and Chernigov date back to the 9th century. Probably, other cities mentioned in the 10th century existed earlier, because the chronicles did not always name a particular city for the first time exactly in the year of its foundation. There is also the opposite problem. For example, Novgorod is mentioned in sources in connection with the events of the 9th century, and archaeologists have so far found traces of residential buildings on its territory only in the middle of the 10th century. Nevertheless, if we rely solely on the data of the annals, then for the XI century. the existence of another 64 cities is recorded, in the XII century. 135 cities are mentioned again, and in the XIII century. (up to 1237) - 47. Thus, there is an increase in the number of cities: in the X century. - 25, in the XI century. - 89, in the XII century. - 224 and by 1237 - 271. Given that this list of cities is based on chronicle news and that it does not include some settlements referred to as cities in other sources, we can assume that the approximate number of cities in Russia at the beginning of the XIII century ... was 300.
Not only the number of cities changes over time. The city itself is changing. Initially, the territory of Russian cities (IX-X centuries) was limited to the boundaries of the fortress. The formation of the city as a center of artisans and merchants is only being planned. But already during this period, under its walls, in some way, independent settlements arose. At first, they do not belong to the city, but around the end of the 10th century. turn into part of it - the outskirts or settlements with artisan or commercial population, which by virtue of their occupations do not live on a mountain - a hill, where the fortress was usually located, but below by the river, on the hem. At the same time, the fortified part sometimes acquired, in addition to the general name "city", "city" also special (, Krom, Detinets, etc.)
The origin of Russian cities is a separate problem in historical science. The greatest importance to the geographical factor in this process was, perhaps, attached to V.O. Klyuchevsky. The emergence of ancient Russian cities is considered by him as a consequence of the success of the Eastern trade of the Slavs, which began in the 8th century. It was to this time that Klyuchevsky attributed the emergence of " oldest cities in Russia with the commercial and industrial districts stretching towards them ”. However, the development of trade alone can hardly explain the emergence of cities, since many of them were located away from the main trade routes. There were other reasons for their appearance. In particular, this can include the urban planning activities of the princes, who needed cities as centers for managing individual tribes and collecting tribute, as well as strategic military strongholds. Do not forget about the development of the craft, which was concentrated in cities. On the other hand, cities in Russia more often arose in the most agriculturally developed regions and served as protection for the rural population from enemies and as a place for marketing products. It is worth concluding that if any one of the above factors played a decisive role in the emergence of each particular city, then all circumstances influenced its further development to a greater or lesser extent.
Since a significant part of the cities of Russia has developed as centers associated with agricultural production, on the map of the Old Russian state, one can distinguish the areas of the greatest concentration of cities, as if uniting agricultural districts. The first "cluster" of cities covers the Middle Dnieper ( oldest cities- Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Lyubech, Novgorod Seversky, Vyshgorod); the second - southwestern Russia (Galich, Vladimir Volynsky, Przemysl); the third - the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Western Dvina (Polotsk, Smolensk, Orsha); the fourth is the Volga-Oka interfluve (Rostov, Suzdal); the fifth - the middle and lower course of the Oka (Murom, Ryazan). There were cities in other regions, but the above-mentioned territories were distinguished economically and were distinguished by developed agriculture.
The names of cities deserve special attention, since they can significantly expand our knowledge of the circumstances of the emergence of a particular settlement. For example one of largest cities southwestern Russia - the city of Galich - from ancient times was the center of the salt trade, near it were large deposits salt. Its name has a Celtic root "hal" meaning "salt" and has migrated to some European languages. In Central, there are quite a lot of toponyms originating from the same root and connected, in one way or another, with salt. When settlements began to appear in the north-east of Russia at the places of salt mining, the names were often given by analogy with the south-western center. This is how the toponyms Galich Mersky and Sol Galitskaya (northeast of Kostroma) appeared. Another of the most ancient cities of Russia - Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl) - was mentioned in the chronicles for the first time around 907. It is located on the small river Trubezh, the left tributary of the Dnieper. The form of its name means "owned or founded by Pereyaslav" (Old Slavic personal name). It is not known, however, which Pereyaslav is in question, since in the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. princes with such a name are not known to us. At the end of the XI century. Pereyaslavl Ryazan appeared, and in 1152 Pereyaslavl Zalessky was founded by Yuri Dolgoruky. I wonder what two last cities located on rivers bearing the same name - Trubezh (in the first case it flows into the Oka, and in the second - into the Kleshchino (Pleshcheevo) lake). Undoubtedly, both times the names of the city and the river were carried over by settlers (or city planners) and were given "in honor" of the already existing toponym and hydronym.
Population and territory
The cities of Kiev and Novgorod became the centers of education of the ancient Russian state. Favorably located on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", they united around themselves two groups of East Slavic tribes - northern and southern.
The sources do not provide information on the population size in Ancient Rus. The famous demographer B. Ts. Urlanis, using indirect data, believes that by the beginning of the second millennium AD, the territory of Kievan Rus was 1.1 million square meters. km., and the population is 4.5 million people.
The territory of the Old Russian state was formed from the lands that were occupied by the tribal unions mentioned in the "Tale of Bygone Years" (glade, Volynians, Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi, Dregovichi, Krivichi, Vyatichi, Slovenia, etc.). The original, the oldest was state territory Middle Dnieper, in fact the Russian land, led by Kiev.
At the end of the 9th - the second half of the 11th centuries. the power of the Kiev princes extends to Novgorod the Great, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov, Polotsk, Murom, Ryazan - the centers of vast lands located in the north, north-east and north-west of the East European Plain. In the south, the expansion of the territory also continued, primarily the Kiev proper, then the Chernigov and Pereyaslavsky principalities. Foreign-language, foreign formations (Muroma, Merya, Goliad, etc.) that became part of the Old Russian state became its integral part. Kievan Rus turned into one of the largest and most powerful states of medieval Europe.
The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state was of great progressive importance for the further independent political, economic and cultural development of the East Slavic tribes and other tribal associations that were part of it.
Tax system
With the formation of the state, the formation of a system of its relations with the population, including the production of goods, tax collection, and military service, is taking place.
The very first form of domination and subordination was the collection of tribute to the state, which was called polyudye. This tribute was collected from the entire population (people). Polyudye was an expression of the prince's supreme right to land and the establishment of the concept of citizenship.
To collect this tribute, the prince and his retinue annually from November to April traveled around the vast territories under their control or sent their governors there. Food, furs, honey, wax, etc. were collected.
The size of the tribute, the place and time of collection were not determined in advance. Senior warriors with their detachments could collect more tribute than the prince. Such aggressive methods aroused popular protest. So, in 945 in the Drevlyansky land there was an uprising against Prince Igor, he was killed. His wife, Princess Olga, carried out a tax reform, establishing "lessons" - the norms of tribute, as well as the time and place of its collection - "churchyards". These were the points where the trade took place. The reform of Princess Olga was in Kievan Rus the first attempt to streamline the collection of tribute. A unit of taxation was introduced: in some places it was “smoke” (family), in others it was “plow” or “ralo”, when a separate farm was taxed. Several "smokes" made up the "courtyard". Less commonly, a person was considered the unit of taxation.
With the development of large-scale landownership and the strengthening of the state, the forms of exploitation changed and differentiated - in some cases, the tribute turned into a tax levied in favor of the prince, the state; in others - in the feudal rent paid to the feudal lord.
Monuments of law
Legal norms played an important role in strengthening the feudal system. The earliest surviving monuments of ancient Russian feudal law are the treaties of the Kiev princes with the Byzantine Empire (911, 944, 971), which contain information about the “Russian Law”. These agreements contain a number of articles on the right of ownership and inheritance, on prisoners and "servants", etc.
But the first Old Russian code of laws was Russkaya Pravda, which was in effect from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The first part of the Brief Edition of Russkaya Pravda, the so-called Ancient Truth, in all 18 articles gives a very limited range of punishable crimes: from murder, beatings to hiding a hiding servant, damage to someone else's weapons and clothing. Although it speaks of such a vestige as the right of relatives to a blood feud for murder, however, blood feud is already dying out and is being replaced by monetary fines for murder (vira) by a court verdict.
“Russkaya Pravda” determined the privileges of the feudal lord, the position of the peasants and other groups of the population dependent on him, normatively secured the feudal lord's ownership of land. A whole series of articles provided for punishment for attempting to encroach on this property. Special articles established punishment for plowing the border, for robbing a boyar estate, for killing the servants of a feudal lord (tiuns, fires, etc.).
"Russkaya Pravda" reflected the origin of the feudal dependence of the population through both economic and non-economic coercion. The economic coercion consisted in the fact that the ruined smerd himself was forced to go into bondage to a secular or church feudal lord. In Russkaya Pravda, these are ryadovichs and purchases *.
* Ryadovichi - persons who were hired to work under a number (contract). If they did not fulfill their obligations, they could become slaves. Purchases - members of the community who took the ssula (kupa) for a certain period.
Pravda Yaroslavichi reflects the structure of the patrimony as a form of land ownership and organization of production. Its center was the mansion of the prince or boyar, the houses of his entourage, stables, cattle.
Feudalization process
Initially, the Slavic tribes did not have estates and all residents had equal rights. However, as it develops productive forces stood out certain groups of the population, differing among themselves in welfare and social status. There was a nobility, which included the "best", "stupid", "big", "oldest", "deliberate" men. The highest status was occupied by the "zemstvo boyars". These included representatives of the tribal aristocracy, descendants of clan elders, as well as merchants who lived on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The highest social strata included the supreme vigilantes, "princes' men".
In the X-XI centuries. in Kievan Rus, the process of feudalization intensified. This was manifested in the offensive of tribal leaders and elders on the communal lands. The intensification of the seizure of communal lands was explained to a certain extent by the fact that by this time arable farming and a two-field crop rotation system were strengthening. Compared to the shifting and slash-and-burn systems, with a two-field crop rotation, there is a significant increase in interest in securing land in permanent possession. Therefore, in Kievan Rus, private ownership of land is being intensively formed, a process is underway, which is called the "charming" of lands. Private ownership of land was called patrimony (patrimony). A fiefdom is ownership of land that can be bought, sold, or inherited. As a rule, it appeared by the addition of land plots of other communes by noble people, in particular, the impoverished ones. The pleasures of ordinary members of the community were often joined not for debt, but forcibly. Thus, in Russia, patrimonials turned into large landowners.
The patrimony could be princely, boyar, monastic, church. From this period, the smerds not only pay tribute to the state, but also become dependent on the feudal lord (boyar) and pay him a quitrent (natural) for using the land or work out corvee, although during this period a significant number of residents remained independent of the boyars.
