Cities
Tours with a visit to this country:
- Great trip to England, Scotland, Wales (without a/p)
- Great trip around England, Scotland, Wales (railway to Brest + bus)
Being European state The UK has managed to maintain its originality. Centuries-old traditions, cities whose history goes back to antiquity, and at every step - monuments of world culture are combined with amazing landscapes that give rest from stress. Interesting places there are so many in the UK that choosing a travel route is not an easy task.
Our company DSBW-TOURS will help you get acquainted with the largest capital of the world - London. To do this, you can choose a week-long tour to London or a combined London-Paris air tour. Especially popular with our tourists are our branded combined excursion routes London-Paris-Benelux and England-Scotland-Wales.
Besides group tours we are ready to organize your individual trip to the UK - for holidays, business or to study English.
Official name
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Population, national composition
Population - 59,100,000 people. National composition: British - 81.5%, Scots - 9.6%, Irish 2.4%, Welsh 1.9%, immigrants from the West Indies, India, Pakistan, etc. - 2.8%.
About 49,000,000 live in England and Wales. Especially densely populated are the industrial regions of central England, where the largest (after London) cities of the country are concentrated: Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds.
The English are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans. The Welsh live in Wales - the descendants of the Celts, who from time immemorial keep their traditions and cultural heritage; therefore they should not be called English.
Religion
Anglicans (Protestants) - 27,000,000 people, Catholics - 9,000,000 people, Muslims - 1,000,000 people, Presbyterians - 800,000 people, Methodists - 760,000 people, Sikhs - 400,000 people, Hindus - 350,000 people, Jews - 300,000 people.
Largest cities
London(7,640,000 people) is a real cocktail of styles and a huge bundle of energy that fascinates and delights people of various preferences and cultures. This city with a two-thousand-year history is literally crammed with historical monuments and, at the same time, it is one of the most modern cities in the world.
Birmingham(2,270,000 people) - an industrial city and an important transport hub. One of the largest cities in the world, in which more than 50% of the economically active population is employed in industry.
Manchester(2,250,000 people) - a large industrial, trade, financial and transport center.
Glasgow(680,000 people), with its industrial past and modern style, it is a true city of contrasts.
Time
Time - Moscow minus three hours.
Britain lives on Universal Greenwich Time (GMT). british summer time is introduced in March, and everyone moves the hands forward an hour, and ends in October, returning to GMT. Most of continental Europe is one hour ahead of the UK.
System of measures and weights
1 mile = 1609 meters
1 gallon = 4.546 liters
1 pound = 454 grams
Climate
The climate of the British Isles is influenced by the proximity of the ocean and especially the currents of the Gulf Stream. The weather in the UK changes so quickly that it gives the British an endless and plentiful fodder for small talk. Traditional English weather. it is rain and damp: the temperature in winter very rarely drops below zero (on average 3-5 o C). The most severe weather conditions in the mountains of Scotland, Wales and Northern Scotland; in the western part of the UK, the climate is wetter than in the east due to the prevailing westerly winds from Atlantic Ocean.
The oceanic nature of the UK climate is reflected in the predominance of unstable weather with gusty winds and thick fogs throughout the year. Winters are very wet and unusually mild, with a sharp temperature anomaly (about 12-15 o C) compared to mid-latitude values.
The average temperature of the coldest month - January - does not fall below 3.5 o C even in the extreme north-east of Great Britain, and in the south-west it reaches 5.5 o C, and the plants vegetate there all year round. Masses of warm sea air, coming from the southwest, increase the winter temperature, but at the same time bring cloudy and rainy weather with strong winds and storms.
With the invasion of cold air from the east and northeast, frosty weather sets in for a long time. Snow in winter falls throughout the country, but very unevenly. In the mountainous regions of Scotland, the snow cover lasts at least 1-1.5 months, while in the south of England and especially the south-west, snow falls very rarely and lasts no more than a week. Here the grass is green all year round. In the west of the UK, winters typically receive twice as much rain as summers. In the eastern regions, winters are colder and less humid.
In spring, cold northerly winds blow, significantly delaying the growth of crops in the east of Scotland, and sometimes dry easterlies. This time of year is usually the least rainy. Spring in the British Isles is cooler and longer than at the same latitudes on the continent.
In the UK, as in other countries with maritime climate, the summer is relatively cool: the average temperature of the warmest month. July. 1-2 degrees lower than at the same latitudes of the mainland. In the summer months, cyclonic activity decreases, and the distribution of average temperatures in July corresponds to latitudinal zonality: in the south-east of the country 16 o C, and in the extreme north-west 12 o C.
The maximum temperature in the south-east of England sometimes rises above 27 o C, and sometimes up to 32 o C. The maximum precipitation here occurs in the second half of the summer.
In autumn, cyclonic activity intensifies, the weather becomes cloudy and rainy, sometimes with severe storms, especially in September and October. When warm air is carried to the chilled surface of the islands, there are often fogs on the coasts.
With warm and humid winds blowing from the Atlantic, there is an abundance of rain in the western regions of Great Britain. On average, 2000 mm of precipitation falls there annually, while in eastern England, located in the "rainy shadow" - only about 600 mm, and in some places even 500 mm in summer. The mountains thus serve as a natural barrier to trap moist air on the western side. The abundance of rainfall favorably affects the growth of many agricultural crops, especially wheat and barley. In general, grains in the British Isles do well in drier years, but then the grasses often burn out.
Forests consisting of oak, beech and birch occupy about 8% of the country's territory - all that remains of the once vast forest areas, it was in them that the hero of English folk ballads, the noble robber Robin Hood and his faithful comrades, lived, Quentin Dorward and other heroes of the works of Walter Scott, familiar to us from childhood.
Among the representatives of the fauna there are deer, fox, rabbits, hare, badger, among birds - partridge, dove, raven. Reptiles, of which there are only four species in the British Isles, are rare in England. The rivers of the region are mainly inhabited by salmon and trout.
Territory
Great Britain is located in the north-west of Europe, in the British Isles (the island of Great Britain is the largest, north- East End the islands of Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, numerous small ones: the Hebrides, Shetland, Orkney, etc.). Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the seas - Northern and Irish, the English Channel, Pas de Calais, North and St. George. Coastline strongly dissected by numerous bays (fjords in the north and river estuaries in the south), forms the large peninsulas of Wales and Cornwall.
The total area of the country is 244,000 sq. km. Mountainous terrain prevails in the north and west. The North Scottish Highlands (the highest peak in the UK is Ben Nevis, its height is 1343 m), the South Scottish Highlands, the Pennines and the Cambrian Mountains. These mountain systems have plateau-like peaks and gentle, vegetated slopes.
Administrative division Great Britain - 47 counties, 7 metropolitan counties, 26 districts, 9 regions, 3 island areas.
Languages
The main language is English, Welsh (it is spoken by about a quarter of the population of Wales), Scottish Gaelic (about 60,000 people in Scotland).
Capital
Currency
Currency - British pound sterling.
Electricity
Electricity - 230 V, 50 Hz, three-prong plugs. For electric shavers - separate sockets with a voltage of 110 V and two round pins.
Political system
Despite its name, the Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is not a federation, but unitary state with a parliamentary monarchy. The country does not have a single constitution as the main law. Its legislation is based on the most important statutes, centuries-old constitutional customs and decisions of the highest judicial bodies - precedents. Nominally, supreme power belongs to the monarch. In fact, the queen reigns, but does not rule. The highest legislative body is Parliament, which includes the Queen, the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
The House of Commons is a nationwide representative assembly elected at least once every five years, while the House of Lords consists of hereditary peers, princes of royal blood, high spiritual and judicial dignitaries and persons who have been granted the appropriate title for life by the monarch, often on the recommendation of the prime minister. Any bill passed by the House of Commons (other than finance bills) may be delayed by the Lords for up to one year. Financial bills become laws after passing the House of Commons and signing by the Queen.
Executive power is exercised by the government headed by the prime minister. Usually, the Queen appoints as Prime Minister the leader of the party that won the most seats in the House of Commons. Practically all political power is concentrated in the hands of the cabinet of ministers, which, as a rule, includes the most prominent figures of the ruling party. Representatives of one of the two leading parties are replaced in power in the country.
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. they were Tories and Whigs. After that, they began to be called conservatives and liberals. From the 20s of the XX century. the influence of the Liberal Party fell and the Labor Party came to the fore. On the main issues of foreign and domestic policy, the Labor Party has no serious differences with the Conservative Party. V last years in the political life of the country, the role of smaller parties - the Liberal, Nationalist parties of Scotland and Wales - increased. The leading parties are forced to seek their support in parliament.
Local municipal governments play an important role in addressing issues of local importance. This structure has changed significantly over the past few years. In Northern Ireland, 26 district offices have been established. And also the complex organization of self-government in England and Wales was simplified and transformed into a two-tier system, consisting of 53 large county offices and 369 smaller district offices.
In Wales, instead of 13 former counties, only eight now remain, and five of them received Welsh names. In Scotland, after the reform, there were nine regional and 53 district offices.
National holidays
Official holidays (Bank Holidays):
January 1 - New Year
Good Friday
Easter Monday
December 25 - Christmas
The days off are also the last Monday of May or the first Monday of June, the last Monday of August or the first Monday of September (August Bank Holiday) and Glorious Twelfth of July (Glorious Twelfth).
Bank Holidays are general public holidays when banks, post offices, shops and some places of interest may be closed. If a holiday falls on a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday is a non-working day.
The full name of Great Britain (by the name of the largest island), or England (by the main historical part of the state), is the Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. (There is another, somewhat solemn and pompous name for England - foggy Albion, left over from the Roman conquerors (lat. albus- white), who once saw the steep white coast of Britain.)
Up to late XIX v. this country was the most powerful empire in the world, the birthplace of capitalism (market economy) and the earliest industrial revolution. The nodal position on the most important lines of shipping and world trade, passing through the English Channel and Pas de Calais, provided the "mistress of the seas" ("workshop of the world", "global banker") with wide connections with the regions of the entire globe.
Lost at the beginning of the 20th century. former power, Great Britain remains one of the most developed industrial powers. It is a nuclear power, a major exporter of capital, founder (1931) British Commonwealth*(since 1947 - Commonwealth), which today includes about 50 former dominions and colonies of Great Britain. From the once huge colonial empire of Great Britain, relatively small “fragments” remained, represented by islands, the most important of which are: Anguilla, Bermuda, British, Virginia, Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos, Montserrat, Falkland, Pitcairn, Henderson, St. Helena and some others.
Britain's commitment to the "unwritten alliance" with the United States and the parallel "inalienability of Britain from Europe" remain unchanged.
Territory, natural conditions and resources. Great Britain is located on the British Isles, entirely occupying the largest of them - the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the second largest island of Ireland, as well as many nearby small islands (Anglesey, Man, White, etc.) and four island groups - Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland (in the Atlantic Ocean), Normandy (in the English Channel). The territory of Great Britain is divided into four historical and geographical
* Commonwealth Sottopu/eash)(until 1947 - the British Commonwealth of Nations) - an association that includes Great Britain and most of its former dominions and colonies. Some countries recognize the Queen of Great Britain as their head of state (she is represented by governors-general). The legal status of the Commonwealth is determined by the Westminster Charter of 1931 (clarified in 1947). There is a Commonwealth Secretariat, annual conferences of Commonwealth countries are held. In the UK, there is a Commonwealth Secretary in the government.
table 2.4.
Historical and geographical regions of Great Britain
realms: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland
(Ulster) (Table 2.4).
England accounts for more than half of the area of the country and the bulk of its population. Under the control of Great Britain remains Gibraltar on the cape of the European coast of the Strait of Gibraltar and a dozen overseas (former dependent) territories, mostly small islands in the Atlantic Ocean.
The isolated position of the country gave it considerable strategic benefits in the past. Separated from Europe by the English Channel (English Channel) and the Pas de Calais (Strait of Dover), Great Britain was freed from the threat of an unexpected enemy invasion for a long time. By focusing on the development of the navy, Great Britain was able to reliably secure its territory and, turning into a leading maritime power, managed to capture vast and rich colonies, significantly increasing its sphere of influence far beyond the borders of Europe. In the XX century. Great Britain has lost its security strategic position and past benefits. In the context of modern globalization, broad contacts with other countries and regions are becoming important.
On the territory of Great Britain, two types of relief are distinguished - mountainous in the northwest and flat in the south and southeast. The mountains are medium-altitude, treeless, have soft outlines and are easily accessible. The lowlands occupy not only the south and southeast, but also a significant part of the center of Great Britain. The main masses of agricultural, especially arable land are concentrated here. The rivers of Great Britain are short but full-flowing. Only two of them - the Thames and Severn have a length of more than 300 km. The sources of the rivers are located close to each other, which, with low watersheds, makes it easier to connect them with canals. Estuaries are of great transport importance - all major ports are located on them. The construction of seaports is also facilitated by the strongly dissected coastline of the island with many bays and bays deeply protruding into the land.
The climate of Great Britain is typically oceanic, humid, with a slight amplitude of temperature fluctuations over the seasons. Winter is mild, summer is cool. Snow and heat are rare guests, but rains and fogs are frequent. According to statistics, in the UK the sun shines on average 3 hours 20 minutes a day!
The country is not rich in minerals. Significant resources are only coal (Central, York, Scottish, South Wales basins), oil and natural gas (North Sea shelf), which provide domestic consumption and are partially exported. There are deposits in the central part of Great Britain iron ore, on the Cornwell Peninsula - small deposits of tin and copper. Kaolin clays and various building materials are widespread.
The sea has always played a big role in the life of the British. The longest distance separating the population of the country from the coast is 100-120 km. Every locality in the UK is connected to the sea in one way or another, using its natural resources.
Population. V ancient British Isles were inhabited by Celtic tribes Britons. At the beginning of our era, the Romans conquer Great Britain (although they failed to conquer Ireland and Scotland). In the 5th century Germanic tribes invade the islands Angles, Saxons and yutov, lived on the Elbe, the Rhine and in Jutland. They push the local Celtic population to the northern and western territories of the island and create an Anglo-Saxon state in the center. In the ninth century the eastern part of the Anglo-Saxon state is conquered by the Danes, the western part remains under English rule. Then for the first time the name of the country appears - England. The last conquerors of the islands - the Danes eventually mixed with the Anglo-Saxons. In XIII v. England forcibly annexes Wales, later, in XVII c., Ireland and Scotland*. In this way, English - this is a people formed on the basis of the merger of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans (Danes) with the original Celtic tribes. Historical and geographical conditions and circumstances contributed to the education in the British of such characteristic national qualities as willpower, perseverance and energy, without which it was impossible to later create a huge colonial empire and form the world Anglo-Saxon diaspora.
* In 1921, Ireland was granted dominion status. The most developed north-eastern part of Ireland - Ulster remained part of the UK, having received autonomous control. Since 1972, Ulster has been effectively controlled by the British central government. The Scottish kingdom was formed in the 11th century. With the approval of the Scottish Stewarts on the English throne (1603), Scotland unites with England in a personal union and joins it in 1652 (officially - in 1707).
The English, living in England, Wales and the south of Scotland, make up the dominant majority (81%) of the population of modern Britain. Scots - 9%, the rest - Irish, Welsh (Welsh), people from former colonies and other foreigners. The presence almost everywhere of West Indians, Indians, Pakistanis, Malays and Africans has now become the most remarkable British phenomenon. The share of immigrants from the Commonwealth countries has reached 4% and continues to grow. (The increase in the number of immigrants is changing the face of neighborhoods in many British cities, making their entire districts look like what can be seen in Delhi, Karachi, Colombo.) Representatives of this part of the population are now members of the British Parliament, belong to municipal governments.
Great Britain is a country with a very high population density and perhaps the highest degree of urbanization in the world. More than 80 people live in cities % population, with at least half of the townspeople concentrated in big cities and urban agglomerations. These agglomerations (called conurbations in the UK) have created a wide urbanized belt of England (the English metropolis), covering the agglomerations of London (7.2 million people), Manchester (2.4), Birmingham (2.3), Leeds (1.7) and Liverpool (1.4 million people). Beyond its borders there are only two millionth conurbations: the seaside northeastern one. (center - Newcastle) and Scottish in the estuary of the river. Clyde (center - Glasgow).
Main city Great Britain - London, replete with sights, almost nothing repeats other capitals of Europe. There are far fewer skyscrapers in the city than in other capitals. "Vertical streets" never enjoyed success with the inhabitants of the island, for this reason London quickly spread in breadth, absorbing the surrounding rural settlements. The ideals of the Englishman have always been his own house with a garden in the suburbs and life limited to the boundaries of the district and community. Therefore, those who happen to live in multi-apartment city "blocks" start a garden at the entrance, on the terrace, balcony or window sill. As a result, London looks not only like the capital of a world power, but in places like a quiet provincial town. This impression is completed by royal parks - Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens, Reed-gents Park, etc.
The historical core of the city - the business center City. It is a state within a state, independent of city authorities, with its own police force, lord mayor, and a hierarchy that even the monarch reckons with. This is where London developed. There are even remains of a Roman fortress wall built in 45 AD. During its long history, the City burned down and rose from the ashes several times. The symbol of the city is
grandiose St. Paul's Cathedral (Saint Paul). There is a legend according to which the architect who built the cathedral in the 17th century asked the worker to bring a stone to mark the center of the building on the prepared construction site. The stone turned out to be a fragment of an old tombstone with the word “Keziggat” (I will rise again). During the Second World War, almost all the buildings around St. Paul were bombed, but the cathedral survived!
Upstream of the Thames is the second history Center city - Westminster, which houses the Houses of Parliament and the residence of the English kings - Buckingham Palace.
The West End adjoins the City and Westminster - the northwestern part of London, where the English nobility used to settle. And now there are sparkling showcases of expensive Piccadilly shops, aristocratic residential areas, theaters, higher educational institutions, and everywhere you can feel the former greatness of the great empire. To do this, just visit the British Museum, which contains the gold of the pharaohs, Parthenon marbles, Assyrian treasures and much more.
Downstream of the Thames is the East End, a port and industrial area. The Port of London stretches along the river for 70 km.
State. Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. The country does not have a constitution in the form of a single basic law. The basis of the existing order in the country is bill of rights adopted in 1689, as well as adopted parliamentary laws, judicial precedents, social conventions and traditions.
The head of state is the king (queen). Royal power is for life and is inherited. The King (Queen) is considered the supreme bearer of executive power, head of the judiciary, supreme commander of the armed forces, the secular head of the state Anglican Church, and head of the Commonwealth. Legally, the king has the right to appoint the prime minister, ministers, judges, diplomats, officers of the army, navy and air force, bishops and archbishops, governors, conclude international treaties, declare war and conclude peace. The king is considered an integral part of parliament, the so-called Yun§ (Oeeen) t parNatep!, and by virtue of this convenes parliament at sessions that open with his throne speech, dissolves the House of Commons, authorizes bills adopted by parliament; has the right to pardon, bestows peerage, barony, knighthood and other honorary titles, issues the so-called acts-orders in the Council, charters, decrees, etc. However, in reality, the English monarch is only a nominal head of state (reigns, but does not govern); royal powers and prerogatives are almost entirely in the hands of the executive branch - the cabinet of ministers.
Formally, the highest body of royal government is the Privy Council, which includes especially honored persons for life. (For the last 150 years, it has practically not functioned.)
The supreme body of legislative power is the parliament, which has centuries-old traditions*. Parliament consists of the monarch, the House of Lords (life and hereditary lords - 618 people) and the House of Commons (an elected body of 659 deputies elected for 5 years on majoritarian system). The British government is formed by the leader of the party that won the most seats in the elections in the House of Commons**. The government is made up of cabinet members (leading ministers) and non-cabinet ministers (ministers without portfolio). The government is headed by the prime minister. The Cabinet of Ministers concentrates in its hands all the most important powers for the implementation of internal and foreign policy country.
Great Britain - unitary state, consisting of 4 historically established regions - England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. England, Wales and Scotland have their own legal and judicial systems, national churches, and local governments. Northern Ireland enjoys limited rights of administrative autonomy; in fact, it is governed by the British government.
Administratively, the UK is divided into counties(England, Wales), districts(Northern Ireland), areas and insular territories(Scotland). The Isle of Man (Irish Sea) and the Channel Islands are also independent administrative units. Elected self-government bodies in all administrative-territorial units (with the exception of sparsely populated parishes, which are governed by general meetings of residents) are councils. They are in charge of local amenities, transport, water supply, consumer services, health care, education, maintaining public order, civil defense, fire safety, etc.
The modern foreign policy doctrine of Great Britain consists in the desire to determine the “zone of concentration of the British
* The British Parliament originates from XIII v. Since 1341 he has been sitting at the Palace of Westminster in London. Like hundreds of years ago, at exactly 14.30 from Monday to Thursday, and on Friday - at 9.30, an exclamation is heard along the corridors of the palace: “The speaker is in place!”, Which means the beginning of the work of the House of Commons of Parliament. At 10:30 p.m. or later, attendants pass through the already deserted corridors, loudly repeating the old ritual phrase: “Who is going home? Don't forget to come tomorrow morning."
** Leading political parties - UK Labor Party (LPW), formed in 1890; The Conservative Party (Tory Party), arose at the end XVII v.; The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), formed in 1988. There are about 400 trade unions, the largest trade union association is the British Congress of Trade Unions (TUC), established in 1868.
Tang diplomacy" in accordance with the changed international status of the country. As a means of achieving this diplomacy, partnership with the EU countries and bilateral relations with the United States are considered. At the same time, the growing "Europeanization" of Great Britain's foreign policy is becoming more and more expedient.
Economy. Despite the fact that in the XX century. Great Britain has lost some of its positions in the world economy, its role remains very significant. The country still has the largest “economic empire” abroad after the United States, and has the opportunity to use the mechanism of the Commonwealth of Nations to achieve its strategic goals. In recent decades, there has been a process of recovery of the British economy based on the intensification and rationalization of its structure. Positions in the field of knowledge-intensive industries have strengthened, the structure of the economy has acquired a post-industrial character (more than 70% - the service sector, 20% - industry, 2% - agriculture, forestry and fisheries).
The structure of the British industry is typical of the most developed countries in the world. The dominant role belongs to the complex mechanical engineering(London, Coventry, Birmingham, etc.). The production of electrical equipment, electronics, and vehicles is especially developed. Industry enterprises are located in all parts of the country, with London, Central and Northern England (machine tool, instrumentation, electronics, automotive and aircraft manufacturing), Scotland (heavy engineering) stand out. Remains traditional ferrous metallurgy. Metallurgical enterprises are located in the areas of extraction of coal, iron ores and in ports through which imported raw materials and alloying metals are imported. Enterprises also gravitate to ports non-ferrous metallurgy, also provided by imported raw materials. The ports of England, South Wales, the mouth of the Thames stand out in particular. Aluminum smelting is concentrated at Scottish hydroelectric power stations.
Actively developing chemical industry, which received at its disposal a powerful source of raw materials in the form of oil and gas from the North Sea shelf. on a large scale stands out the production of synthetic fibers, new types of plastics, dyes, mineral fertilizers and pharmaceutical products. The main areas of the chemical industry are Central and Northern England, South Wales. Petrochemistry gravitates towards port cities. World famous textile (especially woolen) the industry of England, which was once unrivaled in the world. Such giant industrial concerns as British Petroleum, British Steel Corporation, British Leyland, Imperial Chemical Industries,
Shell (as part of Royal Dutch Shell together with Holland) are known all over the world. The same can be said about English.
textiles.
For the island country of the old industrial culture, the role of the local mining industry, represented mainly by the coal, oil and gas industry. Great Britain has significant reserves of coal. The leading role in coal mining is played by the Central and York basins. Oil and gas production (a complex on the shelf of the North Sea), which provide domestic consumption and are exported, has received rapid development. Power industry based on thermal power plants (gas turbines), especially numerous in Central England and the southeast. In Scotland, hydraulic stations are predominant. TPPs and hydroelectric power plants complement the nuclear power plants concentrated in England.
Agriculture- one of the most productive and mechanized in the world. The share of employment in the industry is 2% of the total employment in the country. At the same time, agriculture provides up to 75% of the country's needs for food. Its main industry is animal husbandry. It is provided with natural pastures and hayfields, which are used throughout the year in a large area. The herd is dominated by cattle and pigs. Sheep breeding is developed in the highlands of Scotland, northern England and Wales. crop production especially characteristic of southern England, where cereals (wheat, barley, millet), sugar beets, vegetables, berries and fruits are grown. In Northern Ireland, Northern England and Scotland, oats, potatoes, and fodder plants are cultivated. A significant amount of food products is provided by fisheries - one of the largest in Europe. It provides about 40% of domestic consumption of fish products.
The UK has a highly developed transport system. By saturation transport communications The country occupies one of the first places in the world. The main volume of cargo transportation is accounted for by road transport. Bulk goods are transported over long distances by rail. A railway tunnel was laid across the English Channel to Europe. Maritime transport serves external economic ties. World-class ports - London, Liverpool. The ports of Glasgow, Bristol, Goole, Newcastle are of national importance. In international transport, but also in internal messages plays a big role air transport. There are over 150 civil airfields in the country.
Great Britain occupies a leading position in many areas of international economic relations. Leading form
participation in them is the export and import of capital. The country is the second largest capital exporter in the world. The main objects of British capital application are North America, EU countries, China, Brazil. The UK also accounts for a significant amount of world exports of goods and services. In the commodity structure of exports, the main place is occupied by engineering products, including power plants and industrial mechanisms, vehicles, computers, telecommunications equipment, chemical industry products, medicines. Great Britain is the largest exporter of oil and a number of food products. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals also occupy a significant share in exports. Leading trade partners of Great Britain are EU countries, USA, India, Malaysia, Brazil, China.
At the beginning of the XX century. Great Britain ranked third after the USA and Germany in terms of capital invested in the Russian economy (oil industry and credit sector). However, this is a small figure in the total amount of British overseas investment.
Regional differences and regional politics. Too sharp natural, socio-economic and cultural contrasts are not observed in the UK: one type of climate, the absence of noticeable regional differences in the social security of the population, etc. However, eg. Grampian Mountains in the north, with the highest point of the country, Ben Nevis (1,343 m), is noticeably dissonant with the coastal lowlands of the south, 1,600 mm of precipitation in the north - with 800 mm of precipitation in the east, and the sheep pastures of Scotland - with the arable lands of southern England. Cultural differences are also significant, especially when it comes to Scotland and Wales.
A kind of "crystallization core" of the British state is England, within which the South, Central and Northern regions. The largest and most economically developed region is Southern England(more than 40% of the population is concentrated on 26% of the country's territory, 33% of industrial and 40% of agricultural products are produced). More than half of the products of general engineering, radio electronics, automotive, light and food industries are produced here. Animal husbandry is developed, grain and forage crops are grown. The region is saturated with transport communications; various imported raw materials are supplied to seaports on the eastern, southern and southwestern coasts. The capital agglomeration occupies a dominant position in the economy. London is the largest industrial, financial, research and cultural center of national and world importance.
Central England It occupies one-fifth of the territory of Great Britain and over a third of the total population of the country is concentrated in it. This industrial area, in which suburban agriculture is a service industry. The first industrial enterprises of Great Britain arose here. Now the industrial zones represent the territories of the Midland (Birmingham, Sheffield, Coventry), Lancashire (Manchester, Liverpool), Yorkshire (Bradford, Leeds). ^ Extractive industries, metallurgical industries, engineering enterprises, chemical industry, and textile industries work here.
Northern England- also an industrial area, the development of which is ensured by the extraction of oil and natural gas, nuclear power industry, military engineering and the chemical industry. Agriculture lags behind in the intensification of production from Central and Southern England.
The "outlying" ("peripheral") regions are represented by Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Scotland occupies 32% of the country's territory - this is the largest area in terms of area. In terms of population, it is significantly inferior to England. Economic activity concentrated on the Middle Scottish Lowland. Here on the river The Clyde is the millionaire city of Glasgow, and on the shores of the Firth of Forth is the capital of Scotland, Edinburgh. Glasgow - main industrial centre Scotland, where not only traditional industries are represented, but also the latest ones.
Wales and Northern Ireland remain largely a raw material periphery of England. Wales supplies coal, ferrous and some non-ferrous metals. Northern Ireland supplies agricultural raw materials and food. However, in both districts there are also “upper floors” industrial production- machine-building enterprises, including the latest industries. stand out administrative centers- Cardiff, Belfast.
Now, with regard to the regional policy of Great Britain. For various reasons (early industrialization, small size of the territory, the legacy of complex and intricate legislation in the field of land use, urban organization and local government, as well as cyclical economic crises, etc.), Great Britain, earlier than other Western countries, resorted to state regulation of the use of the territory. Back in 1919, with the adoption of the Entrepreneurship Encouragement Act, the British authorities tried to influence the country's regional restructuring by pursuing a policy of creating new jobs in backward areas. Some researchers generally believe that the nature of the regional policy of this state has been determined for decades by two
motives: the first of them is connected with the need to combat unemployment in depressed areas, especially in Scotland and Wales; the second - with the need to stop the growth of conurbations and "unload" London. (Such an interpretation of the content of British regional policy is, of course, too narrow, but its core is noticed correctly.)
The era of active state intervention in regional socio-economic processes in Great Britain began in the 1930s. 19th century and was dedicated to economic crisis, covering the entire western world. The government's actions had a pronounced anti-crisis focus and contained a package of proposals to provide assistance to areas most affected by the crisis (the northeast coast, the west of Cumberland, south Wales, the industrial zone of Scotland, etc.). Later, a special government commission was established to study the problems of highly industrialized regions, which before the war presented the well-known Barlow report with a detailed program of future regional policy. It, in particular, proposed the creation of a National Industrial Council, whose competence would include the rationalization of the location of industry, the reconstruction of cities, the fight against the growth of population migration to large conurbations, etc. The Second World War prevented the implementation of the ideas outlined in the Barlow report, but the legislative initiative to strengthen regional principles in the country's economy has not died out. Later, a law was issued establishing a Ministry of Urban and Rural Planning to streamline the processes of using the territory; At the government level, measures were developed to stimulate industrial construction in underdeveloped regions. It was forbidden to build new enterprises within London, Birmingham and other large agglomerations; new private construction was encouraged in lagging regions; the creation of green belts around cities was supported, etc.
However, in the second half of the XX century. interest in regional politics in the country has somewhat weakened. It is believed that the reason for the loss of the former interest in regional policy was, first of all, the strengthening of the positions of the private sector (and, as you know, the public sector is the organizational and financial basis of regional policy). The biggest shifts in British regional policy are associated with the period of the conservative government headed by M. Thatcher, when an intensive process of transferring nationalized industries from state to private ownership began. In the mid 80s. 9 important concerns were transferred to private ownership, which accounted for 1/3 of all state property in industry (including telecommunications and
acceptance gas industry). In subsequent years, shares in the oil company British Petroleum, steel and electricity companies were sold, and in the 90s. the question arose of the denationalization of the coal industry.
Obsessed with the noble goal of total cost savings, the government made a radical revision of the entire system of regional policy in the direction of infringing on its financial levers. The regime for providing development incentives has become tougher, first of all, the level of subsidies has been reduced or even abolished (depending on the type of region), and the conditions for providing selective assistance have been complicated. Gradually there was a decrease in the size of "problem regions", efforts were concentrated on the most critical of them. In general, the era of "Thatcherism" made little fundamental change in the methodology of British regional policy - it is associated with the weakening of state intervention in the economy, and therefore with a decrease in the importance of regional priorities.
Control questions and tasks
1. Why at the beginning of the 20th century. Has the UK lost its leading position in the functional mechanism of world politics and economics? 2. Recall from the story about the "motives" that prompted Britain to create the British Commonwealth of Nations. How viable is the Commonwealth at the beginning of the 21st century? 3. Why is the expression “constitutional order” not quite correct in relation to Great Britain? What is the basis of the existing order here? 4. In what areas of international economic relations does the UK lead? 5. How do England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland compare with each other in terms of economic "power" and economic specialization? 6. Is it possible, in your opinion, to talk about the existence in the UK of a special Scottish, as well as Welsh ethno-cultural identity?
Geography: State in the north-west of Europe, in the British Isles (the largest - island of Great Britain), the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Isle of Wight, the Channel Islands and other small islands. Separated from the mainland by the English Channel and Pas de Calais. The area is 244.11 thousand sq. km.
Major cities and agglomerations: Greater London, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Manchester, Bristol.
Time: Behind Moscow by 3 hours (Greenwich).
Natural and climatic conditions: It is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and its seas - the North and Irish, the English Channel, Pas de Calais, North and St. George. The coastline is strongly dissected by bays (fjords in the north and estuaries in the south), forming significant peninsulas of Wales and Cornwall. There are also significant geographical differences between the four historical regions. Scotland and Northern England are mountainous and geographically represent High Britain - the North Scottish Highlands (Ben Nevis, 1343 m, the highest point in Great Britain), the South Scottish Highlands, the Pennines and Cambrian Mountains, the Lake District in the north-west of England . Characterized by smoothed plateau-like peaks, gentle soddy slopes, glacial landforms have been preserved in the north. From High Britain, Low is separated by a conditional line that runs in southwest direction from Newcastle at the mouth of the river. Tyne to Exeter at the mouth of the river. Ex in south Devon. In the south and southeast of Low Britain there are hilly plains (the London Basin, etc.), framed by cuesta ridges, a typical landscape of "good old England". The climate is temperate oceanic, humid, with mild winters and cool summers (influenced by the Gulf Stream). The average temperatures in January are 3-7 °С, in July 11-17 °С. Precipitation on the plains is 600-750 mm, in the mountains 1000-3000 mm per year, drizzling rains and fogs are frequent. Western part The country receives slightly more rainfall than the eastern one. dense network deep rivers(Thames, Severn, etc.), many of which are connected by canals, often outdated. There are many lakes in Scotland and Ireland (Loch Ness, Loch Lomond in Scotland, etc., Loch Ney in Northern Ireland). The mountains are dominated by peat bogs, moorlands used as pastures for sheep. Forests (of oak, beech, birch) occupy 9% of the country's territory. The plains are occupied by arable land and meadows and are densely populated. There are numerous national nature reserves and parks for recreational use (Peak District, Snowdonia, etc.).
Political system:
Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy (but formally there is no constitution, there are a number of basic legislative acts). The head of state is the queen. Legislative power is exercised by the Queen and a bicameral parliament (House of Lords and House of Commons). The executive power is headed by the Prime Minister - the leader of the party that received the majority of votes in elections to the House of Commons and forms the government. Great Britain leads the Commonwealth (Commonwealth), which includes 53 countries.
Administrative-territorial division: It consists of 4 administrative and political parts (historical national regions): England (39 counties, 6 metropolitan counties and a special administrative unit - Greater London), Wales (8 counties), Scotland (12 regions: 9 districts and 3 island territories) and Northern Ireland (26 districts). The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are separate administrative units. The possessions of Great Britain: in Europe - Gibraltar, in America - Anguilla, Bermuda, the Virgin Islands (British), the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos, the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, in Africa - Saint Helena Island, in Oceania - Pitcairn Island.
Population: 60.1 million people (2003). About 80% of the population are English, 15% are Scots, Welsh (Welsh), Cornish and Irish; OK. 5% of the population are immigrants from Commonwealth countries. The English are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans; Scots, Irish, Welsh and Cornish are descendants of the Celts.
The most densely populated areas are Central and South-East England, the least - areas of northern Scotland and Central Wales. High degree of urbanization; 89.4% of the population lives in cities. Almost 1/2 of the population lives in large cities (with a population of over 100,000). On the territory of the country, 8 large urban conurbations with a population of over 1 million people have formed, in which St. 1/3 of the country's population. The average population density is 245.5 people/km2.
Language: Official language- English, the use of national languages is preserved in the province.
Religion: The English are adherents of the Anglican state church, the Scots are predominantly Presbyterian, the Irish are mostly Catholic. There are also a small number of Catholics and adherents of the High Church close to Catholicism among the British.
Economy: Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. Over the past 20 years, the following transformations have been carried out in the British economy: the public sector has been reduced; reduced tax rates for individuals and legal entities; deregulation of the economy was carried out (with a simultaneous reduction in government spending). In 1995, in terms of total industrial production, Great Britain ranked 5th in the world (after the USA, Japan, Germany, France). GNP per capita $24,500 (2000). In terms of energy reserves, it ranks first in Europe, being a major manufacturer oil and gas (production is carried out on the shelf of the North Sea by the most advanced methods on platforms; approx. 1/3 of proven reserves in Europe are concentrated in the British sector) and coal. Oil production 124 million tons in 1996 (main fields Brent, Fortis), gas 89.9 billion m3 (17 fields are in operation, the largest are Lehman Bank, Brent, Morecam). British Petroleum and the Anglo-Dutch company Royal Dutch/Shell are among the leaders in their market segment. Historically very important hard coal mining is constantly declining. In the manufacturing industry, priority is given to such industries as transport engineering (12.4% of total industrial production), including the automotive industry (national companies and branches of foreign companies Rover, Ford, Jaguar, Vauxhall, Pegeout-Talbot, Honda, Nissan, Toyota); shipbuilding; the aerospace industry is the third largest in the world after the USA and France, producing civil and military aircraft (British Aerospace, Harrier, Tornado, Eurofighter), Rolls-Royce aircraft engines, equipment for the European concern Airbus Industry; food industry(12.5% of total production); general engineering: production of agricultural machinery and machine tools, including the production of textile machinery (Great Britain is the world's seventh largest manufacturer of machine tools); electronics and electrical engineering; computers, processors and supercomputers (including manufacturers such as IBM and Compaq); software; means of telecommunications (fiber optics, radars, etc.); medical equipment; Appliances. Chemical industry gives 11% of the total production. These are: pharmaceuticals (Great Britain is the world's fourth largest drug manufacturer); agrochemistry; perfumery; new materials and biotechnologies. The development of modern UK industry is determined by the level of development of high technologies. Great Britain has the highest scientific and technical potential in Europe. Expenditure on research work is over 2% of GDP per year, including over 35% of all research work funded by the state. Traditionally, textile engineering has been important (dedicated to the old textile areas - Lancashire, Yorkshire). The oldest branch of English industry - textile - has now lost its former importance (the main areas of production of the cotton industry are Lancashire, woolen - Yorkshire, knitwear - the East Midlands, linen - Northern Ireland). Large food and flavor industry (production of food concentrates, confectionery and tobacco products, drinks (about 1/5 of the world export of alcoholic beverages, mainly Scotch whiskey and English gin).
Agricultural production is highly intensive, providing half of the country's food needs. In agriculture (1994) 24.8% of the country's territory is used (including St. 60% - under arable land, 35% - cultivated meadows), pastures occupy 45.9%, under forest 10.4%. The main branch of agriculture is animal husbandry. She suffered significant damage in the late 1990s. epidemics of bovine rabies (spongiform encephalitis) and foot and mouth disease. OK. 1/3 of arable land is occupied by cereals, predominantly. wheat and barley. The main agricultural regions are East and South East England.
25% of the country's GDP is generated by the financial services sector. It employs 12% of the country's labor reserves, and London is the world's financial center, the financial capital of the planet. Among financial services, it is worth highlighting banking (in addition to British banks, 50 largest banks in the world are represented in London), insurance, the market for derivative financial instruments (futures, options, global depositary receipts), the bond market (eurobonds), the foreign exchange market (transactions with eurocurrencies), financial leasing, trust transactions with foreign shares, transactions with precious metals. In addition to London, major financial centers are Manchester, Cardiff, Liverpool, Edinburgh. Tourism employs 7% of the working-age population, and the annual income exceeds 8 billion dollars. London is the largest tourist center in the world. A significant part of the GDP comes from education at world-famous schools and universities.
Currency: GBP. 1 pound = 100 pence. In circulation are banknotes of 50, 20, 10, 5, 2, 1 pounds sterling and coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 pence and 1 pound sterling.
Main attractions: The territory of Great Britain is full of natural contrasts - ancient and dull peat bogs, moorlands and incredible blue lakes of Scotland in the north, picturesque coastal cliffs and crystal clear calm waters in the south and western coasts, hilly cultivated Central England with parks and lawns, majestic mountains and the green valleys of Wales to the west. Each region of the country has a characteristic appearance, its own distinctive traditions, culture and customs.
London is a cosmopolitan mixture of all styles and eras of the country's history, generously "seasoned" with a motley multinational population. The capital has an incredible number of attractions, including world-famous historical places, many great shops and an incomparable night life. There are about 80 theaters in London, more than 30 museums, among which the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Museum of Natural History, the History of London, the Museum of the History of Imperial Wars, the Museum of Transport in Covent Garden, the charming museum of children's toys, the famous Wax Museum are especially popular. Madame Tussauds, the Tate Gallery, the National Gallery and the Courtauld Institute - the largest collections of painting and sculpture and many others.
Among the many diverse monuments of culture and history, Westminster Abbey (XIII-XVIII centuries) and the grandiose Saint Paul - St. Paul's Cathedral (XVII-XVIII centuries) are especially famous, main cathedral capital, built in honor of the patron saint of London and has become one of the symbols of the city. One of the curiosities of the cathedral is the "whisper gallery", in which, putting your ear to the wall, you can hear the words spoken in a whisper at a distance of 30-40 meters.
Tower of London Castle (XI-XIV centuries), formerly different time sometimes just a fortress, sometimes a royal palace, sometimes a terrible prison that served as a place of imprisonment for political criminals and a place of executions, sometimes an observatory or a zoo. The world-famous castle was built by the Norman king William the Conqueror in the 11th century. The Tower today is not just a museum and treasury of the English kings, but also a completely independent small town with its inhabitants - "beefeaters" (guardsmen), guardsmen and "official residents" - ravens, who are on special royal allowance. The symbol of London, the Gothic Tower Bridge, is of constant interest to tourists. The castle is open to tourists on weekdays and Saturdays from 9.00, on Sunday from 10.00 to 18.00.
The West End is famous for the sparkling windows of the expensive shops of Piccadilly, the "bohemian" Covent Garden, the eclectic Soho with its nightclubs and the symbolic figure of Eros, the aristocratic residential quarter of Mayfair, as well as the famous Westminster and the royal Buckingham Palace - the "working office of the monarchy" are located here. . Here is the center of royal power, all the ceremonial and festive events of the dynasty begin here, sessions of Parliament open here (the doors of the House of Commons are open daily for everyone) or ceremonies in honor of the Queen's birthday. If a flag flies over the palace, then Her Majesty is at home. The Royal Gallery constantly hosts exhibitions from the royal collections.
Trafalgar Square - main square countries and capitals, from which all distances in the country are calculated. The square is decorated with a three-meter figure of the monument to Admiral Nelson, which stands on a column 45 meters high.
Westminster Abbey (translated from English - "cathedral in the west") was created by members of the royal family of different generations, starting in 1040. In this most famous abbey of the kingdom, since 1066, all English monarchs have been crowned. Prominent people of the country are buried in the Westminster cemetery - from the crowned heads of England to Dickens, Kipling and Shaw. The temple is still active today, it has its own choir and an indispensable choir school.
Big Ben is another symbol of London. Usually Big Ben is called the tower or the clock located on it, but in fact it is the name of the 16-ton bell, the largest in the country, one of the five bells of the Great Clock Tower, named after Benjamin Hall, who led its installation. The chime of the "Westminster Clock" is considered a symbol of Great Britain, it can be heard as a signal of the exact time even on the BBC radio network - they are considered the most accurate public clock in England.
The Palace of St. James was built for Henry VIII in the 16th century. The royal chancellor lives in the palace.
Country Osborne House, one of the residences of Queen Victoria, the centenary of whose death the country widely celebrated in 2001, is another "royal" landmark of the country. The Queen has always been very fond of this house by the sea, built for her and Prince Albert in 1845 in a quiet place near London. Everything here still looks exactly as it was during the life of one of the most revered queens in England.
Another of the most interesting historical sites in the country is the main country residence of the English kings - Windsor Castle.
The National Gallery founded by King George IV is one of the best museums in the world. The collection of Western painting is widely represented - the collection consists of 2.5 thousand paintings, including the best masters of the Renaissance, paintings by famous Flemish, Dutch and Italian masters, an excellent exposition of modern art.
The British Museum is one of the richest museums in the world, famous for its historical collections. The best art objects of Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Ancient Greece, India, medieval manuscripts and many other rarities of all times and peoples are collected in this colossal exposition. One of the most original museums in the world is the Sherlock Holmes Museum on Baker Street. The undoubted attraction of London is the oldest subway in Europe, which opened in 1863.
The capital impresses with an abundance of parks, the most famous of which are Hyde Park, Regent's Park with a wonderful zoo, located next to Madame Tussauds, Kew Hydens with a greenhouse, an aquarium and the Butterfly House, as well as St. old park capital Cities.
Also in the city there are a great many places, one way or another connected with music. In addition to the classic Covent Garden and numerous theaters, you should definitely visit the Hard Rock Cafe, which was visited by the Beatles, Elvis Presley, Elton John, Mick Jagger and many others, the 100 Club is the most famous and oldest jazz club in England , as well as the Rock Sekus Museum, which presents an exposition dedicated to the history of rock and pop music.
Provincial England itself is also remarkable - the city of Lincoln, sung in many legends with the oldest fortress in England, the city of Bath, which got its name thanks to the Roman baths located there, northern Chester, founded by the Romans 2 thousand years ago, or York - one of the most beautiful medieval cities in England with the magnificent Ministerial Cathedral (the largest cathedral in Europe).
Durham is the most "dramatic" city in England. Situated on a peninsula surrounded on three sides by the waters of the River Way, the city is "entirely dominated" by a massive Norman cathedral, which is built on a wooded promontory and looks more like an old cliff than a temple. None of the hundreds of British cathedrals has such an impact on the viewer with its architecture. The cathedral neighbors an ancient Norman castle and University College, while the rest of Durham, picturesque enough on its own, barely fits into the remaining space on the teardrop-shaped promontory.
Stratford, home to the Shakespeare House Museum and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, as well as the university cities of Cambridge and Oxford - best places to get acquainted with English traditions. Oxford is the oldest university city in England, the citadel of English education and just a very beautiful city with characteristic architecture.
The legendary Stonehenge (dated circa 3100-1800 BC) is the most famous prehistoric site in Europe. The appointment of Stonehenge has been debated for many centuries, among the versions were the assumption that it was a temple of the ancient Celts, and an astronomical observatory, and that aliens were the creators of this megalithic ring of vertical stone slabs, but its mystery has not been solved .
Northumberland is one of the "wildest" and least "spoiled" counties in England. There are probably more castles and battlefields here than anywhere else in England. The most interesting and famous tourist sites of the district are "Hadrian's Wall" and Northumberland National Park. The grassy Cheviot Hills, an elevated part of the park, is the most beautiful part of Northern England and is the best place for hiking or horse riding tours.
The Cotswolds, a huge limestone escarpment 18 miles northeast of Bristol, is stunning beautiful place, full of the picturesque charm of Agatha Christie, and decorated with majestic cliffs, colorful English villages and wonderful views.
The Lake District ("Lake District") in Lancashire is the greenest and most pleasant corner of England, with abundant green valleys, low but steep mountains, picturesque lakes and medieval villages that blend harmoniously into the mountain landscape. Each of the lakes is completely different from the "neighbor": Allswater, Grasmere and Windermere are considered the most beautiful, while West Water, Crumlock Water and Buttermere are more exciting and much less crowded with tourists.
The Isles of Scilly, 28 miles southwest of Land's End, are 140 rocky islets in the heart of the warm Gulf Stream. Temperate climate allows plants and trees to grow here that do not grow anywhere else in England, but abundant bird colonies and an interesting animal world made this region one of the best eco-tourism destinations in the country.
The green hills of Shropshire form one of the most beautiful, peaceful and characteristic areas of England. The soft landscape and low population density make these places a completely unusual area for tourism - almost in the center of a densely populated country, you can enjoy extreme cycling or easy trekking with complete freedom. The county seat, Shrewsbury, is probably the finest Tudor town, and is known for its Romanesque buildings and windy medieval streets, in many places completely unchanged over the centuries. Near Wroxter lie the ruins of Viroconum, the fourth largest city in Roman England. Ironbridge Gorge Museum (south of Telford) - best museum industrial archeology in the UK, and possibly in the world.
Scotland, with its castles and mountainous landscapes, is a completely different country, rugged and proud, whose landscapes have made it a well-deserved reputation as the most colorful region in the UK. In total, there are 787 islands in Scotland, and almost all of them are inhabited. On the western islands You can especially feel that Scotland is not in vain considered one of the last oases of wild nature in Europe. The famous Highlands ("high lands") is a unique natural landscape in the north-west of the country, where mountains alternate with the sea, and meadows with forests.
It is here that the most high point Great Britain - Mount Ben Nevis, as well as the legendary Loch Ness, in the waters of which the prehistoric monster Nessie allegedly lives, attracting hundreds of thousands of tourists to the Loch Ness Monster Museum in the village of Drumnadrochit. There are also many factories for the production of first-class whiskey, medieval castles, fortresses and museums. The world famous Palace of Holyrood House in Edinburgh, the Kelvingrove Museum in Glasgow, the national natural museum"Snowdonia" with Bryn Bras castle, park and waterfalls.
The largest city in Scotland is Glasgow (translated from the Celtic - "expensive green place"). The city is really quite expensive and is surrounded by greenery, but at the same time it has a very distinctive architectural appearance, combining Gothic, Italian Renaissance, Gregorian and Victorian styles. Glasgow is considered the center of the arts in Scotland and the site of numerous festivals. It also houses the Glasgow Art Gallery and the Kelvingrove Museum, which belongs to the richest museums and galleries in Europe. St. Mungo's Cathedral (1136), the Hunterian Museum, as well as the Glasgow Botanical Garden and the Zoo give a completely peculiar flavor to the city. The city has more than 30 art galleries and museums, including the famous "Burella Collection" - one of the largest private art collections in the world, as well as the Gallery of Modern Art.
Edinburgh is an example of the interweaving of times, divided by history into several parts: the Old Town ( early middle ages), "new" (XVIII century) and modern. Edinburgh is rightfully considered one of the most beautiful, but also the most expensive European capitals and is famous for its Castle Rock (XII century), the majestic St. Margaret's Church (XI century) and the royal palace of Holyrood House (the former palace of Mary Stuart, and now the residence of the Queen of England). The Georgian period of the city is represented by numerous squares and shopping streets, the main of which are the old streets of Royal Mill and Princess Street, where the famous "Scottish Monument" and the National Art Gallery are located. Very picturesque are the church of St. Giles (XV century), the building of the Scottish Parliament (1639) and the house of the Protestant reformer of the XVI century. John Nons. Edinburgh disputes with Glasgow the right to be called cultural capital countries - here are the famous National Gallery of Scotland and the Portrait Gallery, the Royal Museum, the Museum modern history and Scottish history. And the number of festivals and concerts held here is simply incalculable.
Just an hour's drive from the Scottish capital, on the seashore, is the small old town of St. Andrews, where the oldest Scottish university and the oldest golf course in the country are located. Tourists tend to visit Inverary to see the magnificently preserved Gothic castle of the 12th century. on the shore of Lake Fine and the remains of a fort of the 4th century, or one of the Scottish islands.
Noteworthy is the Isle of Arran (accessible by ferry from Androssan), where the museum "Scotland in Miniature" is open. And half an hour from Edinburgh is Stirling - a fabulously beautiful old university city. The "Land of the Falls" is called the Vail of Neath near the Brecon Beacons National Park.
On the northeast coast of Scotland lies historic Aberdeen, often referred to as the "Silver City" for the particular color of the granite that many of the buildings are made of. The city is mentioned in medieval chronicles already in the time of William the Conqueror, and even then it was known throughout Europe, and in the XII-XIV centuries. it was the residence of the Scottish kings. In addition to the majestic Gothic cathedral (1336-1552), it is now also famous for its parks, botanical gardens and exhibitions of fresh flowers, operating all year round.
Inverness is a small town 260 km. north of Edinburgh, but it is believed that most of the old Scottish families come from Inverness, that this is the real birthplace of oatmeal, whiskey and bagpipes.
Wales is a land of magnificent landscapes and majestic medieval castles - for every square kilometer there are more castles than anywhere else in the world. The most famous castles of the "defensive ring", built during the time of King Edward I, who conquered Wales in the 13th century: Harlech Castle, towering on a cliff in the center of Wales, Conwy Castle, located at the mouth of the river, Bowmaris Castle on the island of Anglesey and, of course, the most impressive castle - Caernarfon. In 1969, it was in this castle that the ceremony of introducing the Queen's son Charles to the title of Prince of Wales took place. Approximately one fifth of the territory of Wales has the status of a National Park - rocky peaks and the mirror surface of lakes, sandy bays and bays, mysterious underground caves Dan-ir-Ogof - the realm of stalactites and stalagmites.
Cardiff, the capital of Wales, is the historical, commercial and cultural center of the country. You should definitely take a look at the magnificent Cardiff Castle, which is a combination of a Roman fort and a luxurious 19th-century mansion. with walking peacocks. Fabulously beautiful is the castle Coch adjacent to it with a functioning drawbridge and cone-shaped turrets, restored from the ruins of the 16th century, as well as the Landaf Cathedral and the Church of St. John the Baptist (15th century).
St. Davids is the smallest cathedral city in the country. Here, in the cathedral of the 12th century, the relics of St. David, the patron saint of Wales, are kept. In the Solwyn Bay area, you can ride over the mountains in hanging cabanas or straight down the slopes in old streetcars. The ropes are pulled so high in the sky that during the trip you can see the entire nearby coast and the rocky surrounding hills.
Belfast (Northern Ireland) is famous for the Protestant St. Anne's Cathedral, the Ulster Museum and City Hall. Of the natural attractions of Northern Ireland, one can single out the "Giant's Road" - a rock formation of thousands of multifaceted basalt columns up to 6 m high, as well as its entire sea coast, filled with quiet charm humble nature and constant measured noise of wind and surf.
Historical outline:
Traces of the settlements of primitive people are found almost everywhere on the British Isles. 
Of the pre-Celtic population, the most famous tribe of the Picts who lived in Scotland. In the 1st millennium BC. e. Here came the Celts. By the name of one of the tribes, the Britons, the country was called Britain. The first of the Romans landed here Julius Caesar, but soon left the island. His successors founded Roman settlements here, but they could not conquer the entire territory and did not try to move north. With the weakening of Rome, the Britons formed their own kingdoms. In the 5th-6th centuries. during the Great Migration period, England was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, who formed several kingdoms here: Mercia, Wessex, Sussex, Kent, Northumbria. They were united by King Alfred the Great (late 9th century). He compiled the first set of common English laws. The Anglo-Saxons faced attacks by the Vikings and, starting from the 9th century, they paid tribute to them - danegeld. One of the Viking kings, Canute I the Mighty, included England in his empire (2nd half of the 11th century), but after his death, the Anglo-Saxons regained their independence. Their last king, Harold II, fell in a battle with Duke William of Normandy in 1066. The Norman conquest united the country, and the formation of the English nation began. In 1212, an uprising of the barons, supported by all estates, forced King John the Landless to sign the Magna Carta. This marked the beginning of the development of the English monarchy as an estate, that is, based on all the estates of the country. From the end of the 13th century Wales passed to the English crown. The Hundred Years' War of 1337–1453 with France resulted in the loss of the possessions of the English kings on the Continent. In Scotland, an independent kingdom arose c. 9th c. and often came into confrontation with England. The conquest of Ireland by the British began in the 12th century.
During the War of the Scarlet and White Roses (1455-1485) in England, the old tribal nobility was largely destroyed. The new nobility (gentry) increased their possessions by enclosing (driving peasants from the land), willingly participated in various kinds of trade and industrial enterprises. In the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), England, having defeated the Spanish fleet, achieved dominance at sea. Elizabeth was replaced by kings from the Scottish dynasty of the Stuarts, Scotland united with England in a personal union (and from 1707 officially united and deprived of independence). English revolution 17th century ended with the establishment of a parliamentary monarchy. The long struggle with France for commercial and colonial hegemony ended in the 18th century. British victory; vast possessions in India were seized and North America, began the colonization of Australia, New Zealand. In the 1760s The Industrial Revolution began in England. By the middle of the 19th century. it accounted for 1/2 of world production. Scotland and Ireland (the union of 1801 eliminated the remnants of autonomy) developed much more slowly. Throughout the 19th century Britain expanded its empire, although it lost the United States of America. Vast territories were captured in Burma and South Africa, the capture of India, Cyprus, Egypt was completed, wars were fought against China. In 1867 the colonies in Canada were transformed into the first dominion, then Australia and some other colonies became dominions. Throughout the 19th century finally took shape the system "the king reigns, but does not rule." The struggle for power since the 17th century. There were two parties - the Tories and the Whigs. From the middle of the 19th century the Tories became the Conservatives and the Whigs became the Liberals.
After the First World War, Great Britain received a significant part of the former German possessions in Africa and b. including territories taken from Turkey. Great influence in domestic politics acquired by the Labor Party. After World War II, bombed-out Britain took a backseat to the United States on the international stage. In the 1940s-1970s. almost all gained independence British colonies. The Labor Party pushed aside the Liberal Party and after the Second World War the government was alternately formed by Labor and Conservatives. Under the conservative government of M. Thatcher, most of the public sector enterprises were privatized, a course was taken to reorient the traditional coal-mining regions. Being one of the leading members of the EU since its inception, the UK has been pursuing an independent policy towards other European countries, focusing more on the United States. Traditional English conservatism does not yet allow Blair's government to switch to a common European currency, although the country's business circles are striving for this.
National holiday: The Queen's Birthday (celebrated not on the true birthday of Her Majesty, but by decision of the government, usually on one of the Saturdays of the first half of June).
National domain: .UK .GB
Entry rules: To enter the country, you must have a passport and a visa obtained on the basis of an invitation, as well as, in some cases, confirmation of your ability to pay your expenses.
Customs regulations: The import of foreign currency is not limited. The transit of antiquities and antiques is prohibited without the permission of the relevant organizations, as well as rare species of animals.
intelligenceUK (state) - Island state on S.-Z. Europe; occupies the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, the islands of Anglesey, Wight, Channel, Orkney, Hebrides, Shetland and a number of smaller ones. West Banks UK (state) are open to the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, while the eastern and southern ones, facing Western Europe, are washed by the North Sea and the narrow straits of the English Channel and Pas de Calais. Area 244.1 thousand sq. km 2. Population 55.5 million people (1969). The capital is London.
UK (state) consists of 4 historical-geographic regions (Table 1).
Tab. 1. - Composition of the territory of Great Britain
| Area thous. km 2 | Population, million people (1968) | Capital |
|
| England | 130,3 | 45,9 | London |
| Wales | 20,8 | 2,7 | Cardiff |
| Scotland | 78,8 | 5,2 | Edinburgh |
| Northern Ireland (Ulster) | 14,1 | 1,5 | Belfast |
Administratively, it is divided into counties and cities with county rights. Greater London (composed of 32 districts) is allocated as a special administrative unit.
UK (state) leads commonwealth (The Commonwealth), which includes 31 states with a population of about 900 million people, including former and remaining dominions and most of the former colonies that achieved independence after the 2nd World War 1939-45 (see. british empire ). During 1938-69, colonial possessions shrank in area from 14.5 million sq. km 2 up to 1 million km 2, and in terms of population from 454 million people. up to 10 million
. Political system
UK (state)- parliamentary monarchy. It does not have a single constitutional act; unwritten constitution UK (state) evolved over a number of centuries and consists of parliamentary laws (the so-called statutory law), judicial precedents and constitutional conventions or customs. The statutory basis of the constitution UK (state) consists of several important acts: Magna Carta 1215, Petition for Right 1628, habeas corpus act 1679, « Bill of rights» 1689, , The Representation of the People Act 1948, the Reform Act of the House of Lords 1968, the Representation of the People Act 1969, etc.
The highest organs of state power. The head of state is the king (queen). Royal power is for life and is inherited by direct descendants of the monarch in the male line, and in their absence - in the female line, according to seniority. The King (Queen) is considered the supreme bearer of executive power, the head of the judiciary, the supreme commander of the armed forces, the secular head of the state Anglican Church and the head of the Commonwealth. Legally, the king has the right to appoint the prime minister, ministers, judges, diplomats, officers of the army, navy and air force, bishops and archbishops, governors, conclude international treaties, declare war and conclude peace. The king is considered an integral part of the parliament, the so-called King (Queen) in parliament, and by virtue of this convenes parliament at sessions that are opened by him. speech from the throne, dissolves the House of Commons, authorizes bills passed by Parliament; has the right to pardon, bestows peerage, barony, knighthood and other honorary titles, issues the so-called acts-orders in the Council, charters, decrees, etc. However, in reality, the English king is only a nominal head of state (reigns, but does not rule); royal powers and prerogatives are almost entirely in the hands of the executive branch - the cabinet of ministers.
Formally, the highest body of royal government is the Privy Council, which includes especially honored persons (over 300 people) for life. Almost 150 years does not function.
The highest legislative body is Parliament, which consists of the King, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. These constituent parts of the parliament are considered independent of each other, since they are built on different principles, have separate residences and different powers; however, for the adoption of laws, as a rule, the coincidence of their opinions is necessary. Nationwide representative institution UK (state)- the lower house - the House of Commons, which consists of 630 deputies (511 from England, 36 from Wales, 71 from Scotland and 12 from Northern Ireland). In the House of Commons, elected in 1970, 330 seats were taken by the Conservatives, 287 by Labor, 6 by Liberals, and 7 by Independents and representatives of small political groups. The term of the House of Commons is 5 years. By law, every British subject who has reached the age of 21 can be elected to the House of Commons, but the exceptions to this declared rule are quite wide. Peers, clergy, certain categories of pensioners, bankrupts, persons convicted of certain types of crimes, judges, civil servants, persons serving in the armed forces and the police, the mentally ill cannot be elected to the House of Commons. Member of Parliament receives a salary of 3250 f. Art. in year. The election of deputies of the House of Commons is carried out according to the uninominal (1 deputy from each district) majoritarian system of relative majority: the candidate who receives more votes than each of his opponents separately is considered elected. To nominate a candidate, it is necessary to declare this from several voters and make a deposit of 150 f. Art.(The deposit is non-refundable if the candidate collects less than the total number of votes cast in that constituency). Active suffrage is granted to all eligible British subjects of both sexes who have reached the age of 18 and have lived within the constituency for 3 months, except for peers, electors, persons of unsound mind, persons disenfranchised by a court. Electoral lists are published on 15 March each year. Voting is by secret ballot; voting by mail and by proxy is allowed.
Upper house of parliament UK (state)- the House of Lords - an archaic institution, consists of secular and spiritual peers (over 1000 people). Secular peers are divided into 3 groups: hereditary peers and peers of England, Scotland. Great Britain and the United Kingdom, which have not renounced their titles under the Peerage Act 1963; life peers and peers appointed by the Crown under the Life Peerage Act 1958; Lords of Appeal, appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 to exercise the judicial powers of the House of Lords. The category of spiritual peers includes the archbishops of Canterbury and York, the bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, as well as 21 bishops of the Anglican Church, who occupy seats in the House of Lords by seniority.
Formally, the parliament has absolute supremacy, since there are no legal restrictions on its powers; in fact, the adoption of laws and the budget is carried out by the government. The legal status of the chambers of parliament is different. Financial bills (bills) can only be introduced in the House of Commons, and their adoption does not require the consent of the House of Lords. With regard to other bills, the House of Lords retains the right to delay their final approval. Thus, although the House of Lords occupies a subordinate position in the legislative process, under certain circumstances it plays the role of a brake on bills passed in the House of Commons. The procedure for passing bills in both chambers is approximately the same, however, the chairman of the House of Commons - the speaker - has broad powers and has a decisive influence on the entire course of the work of the chamber, while the Lord Chancellor, who presides in the House of Lords, is deprived of these powers. The king has the right to finally reject the law (the so-called absolute veto), but since the beginning of the 18th century. this right does not apply. Legislative initiative is almost entirely carried out by the government.
Government UK (state) consists of 80-100 people. It includes: departmental ministers (some of them are called secretaries of state), who head certain departments; non-departmental ministers holding so-called traditional positions (Lord President of the Council, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Lord Privy Seal, Treasurer General), and ministers without portfolio; the Lord Chancellor and the heads of the judiciary; ministers of state appointed to assist departmental ministers; so-called "junior" ministers (deputy secretaries of state and parliamentary secretaries who replace "senior" ministers in parliament). The vast majority of ministers are members of the House of Commons, with a small proportion representing the government in the House of Lords. The government is headed by the prime minister. As a rule, the leader of the party that has a majority in the House of Commons is appointed to this position, in fact, from the beginning of the 18th century. supreme body executive power UK (state)- the Cabinet of Ministers, which concentrates in its hands all the most important powers for the implementation of domestic and foreign policy. Although the cabinet cannot issue normative acts, in fact it carries out all normative activity. The composition of the cabinet is selected personally by the prime minister, and it includes only a part of the ministers holding the most important positions in the government (about 20). Legislation UK (state) the formation of the Cabinet of Ministers is not provided.
Legally, the government is collectively responsible for its political activities to the House of Commons and in case of loss of confidence (see. Vote ) must resign. However, under the two-party system prevailing in UK (state), such a situation has not arisen for more than 60 years; in practice, the cabinet, sensing the weakness of its parliamentary positions, dissolves the House of Commons and calls new elections.
Local government.UK (state)- a unitary state consisting of 4 historically developed regions: England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. England, Wales and Scotland have their own legal and judicial systems, national churches, local government systems. Member of the Cabinet of Ministers UK (state) includes the Secretaries of State for Wales and Scotland. Northern Ireland enjoys limited administrative autonomy under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Executive powers in Northern Ireland are vested in the governor, appointed by the king (queen); the legislature is a bicameral parliament, consisting of the House of Commons (52 deputies elected by the people of Northern Ireland) and the Senate (26 senators elected by the House of Commons). There is a cabinet headed by the prime minister. The powers of all these bodies are limited to purely local matters and in fact the government of Northern Ireland is carried out by the government UK (state)
The elected body of self-government in all administrative-territorial units (with the exception of sparsely populated parishes, which are governed by general meetings of residents) is a council, either elected for 3 years or renewed every year. Member of the councils counties, county towns and municipal cities (with a population of up to 75 thousand inhabitants) include elders, the so-called aldermen, who are elected by the respective councils for a period of 6 years in an amount equal to the number of the council, from among persons who are not members of the council. The chairman of the council - the mayor (in some large cities the lord mayor) is elected by the council from among its members for a period of 1 year. The competence of local self-government bodies of all levels is determined by parliamentary and other acts; they are in charge of issues of local improvement, transport, water supply, consumer services, health care, education, maintenance of public order, civil defense, fire safety, etc. The municipalities are heavily financially dependent on the central government. About half of the financial needs of the municipalities are covered by government subsidies, the rest - by local taxes.
Judicial system. V UK (state) there is no unified judiciary. The highest central judicial body is the Supreme Court of Justice, which includes the High Court and the Court of Appeal for Civil Cases. The highest court is the House of Lords, in fact, there are 3 judicial systems. In England and Wales, the first instance in criminal cases is the magistrates' court, through which over 90% of all criminal cases pass. The composition of such a court includes from 2 to 7 justices of the peace, who are not lawyers by education and do not receive a salary, therefore, as a rule, only wealthy people, representatives of the propertied classes, become judges. In large cities, professional lawyers can be appointed to the position of justices of the peace, considering cases individually and receiving a salary. In the counties and cities, at least 4 times a year, sessions of justices of the peace (the so-called quarter sessions) are convened, which consider the most important criminal cases involving jurors. Courts assizes - the mobile courts, which are branches of the High Court, hear cases in which charges have been brought by justices of the peace. The Central Criminal Court in London hears cases for crimes committed in Greater London. Appeals against sentences of justices of the peace can be made to the High Court. The Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal considers appeals against sentences of the quarter sessions, court of assizes, etc. In cases where a “legal issue of national importance” was raised during the consideration of the case, an appeal can be brought to the House of Lords.
The first instance in civil cases in England and Wales is a county court in which cases are considered by a single judge (at the request of one of the parties, the case can be heard with the participation of jurors). The county courts generally hear claims for amounts not exceeding $500. f. st. The High Court is both the first and the appellate instance in almost all civil cases; it consists of the Chancellery, the Probate, Divorce and Maritime Affairs, and the Queen's Bench (cf. Court of King's Bench ). Appeals in the most important cases are heard by the civil division of the Court of Appeal and, in some cases, by the House of Lords.
In Scotland, the police courts in the cities and the magistrates' courts in the counties, as well as the sheriff's courts, are the first instance in criminal cases (see below). Sheriff ). The most important criminal cases are heard as first instance by the High Court of the Justicar, which also has appellate jurisdiction. The highest instance is the Court of Session, which consists of 2 divisions: the upper house (it considers any civil and divorce cases at first instance) and the inner chamber (appeal instance), the decision of which can be appealed to the House of Lords.
In Northern Ireland, the first instance in criminal and civil cases is the county courts and the courts of summary jurisdiction (small sessions). The highest courts are the Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court and the Court of Appeal, and the Criminal Court of Appeal.
V UK (state) judges of all courts are appointed by the king. Special place in judicial system various kinds of special courts are occupied, for example, coroner's courts, which are convened to determine the causes of violent death, etc. Administrative tribunals are created (see. Administrative justice ), which consider disputes between private and legal persons and state bodies arising in the process of public administration. V UK (state) there are military courts whose chairmen and members are appointed by the military command from among the officers. The jurisdiction of military courts extends to persons serving active military service in the army, navy and aviation, and to members of their families, if they are outside UK (state)
Lit.: Constitutions of the bourgeois states of Europe, M., 1957, p. 163-333; Harvey, D. and Hood, K., British State, trans. from English, M., 1961.
A. A. Mishin.
. Nature
UK (state) located in the Atlantic sector temperate zone Europe. The sea has a huge impact on nature. The most remote points are separated from it by 40-60 km, and in the southern part - by 100-120 km. The coastline is heavily indented. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland - abrasion and abrasion-accumulation bay shores, alternating in places with rias and watt. Some bays belong to the type of estuaries (estuaries of the Thames, Severn). The largest bays in the west are the Firth of Lorn, the Firth of Clyde, the Solway Firth, Cardigan, and Bristol; in the south, Lyme; UK (state)- Wash, Firth of Forth, Marie Firth. On the Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland Islands and in Scotland, mostly fjord coasts.
Relief. Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and Northern England are dominated by medium-altitude mountains and uplands with a leveled summit surface and deeply incised river valleys. Vertical tectonic movements, as well as erosion and Pleistocene glaciation, played a significant role in the formation of their relief.
The relief of Scotland is most highly dissected, where Scottish Highlands and South Scottish Highlands, divided lowlands. Above the plateau-like surface of the highlands rise ridges with alpine-type peaks up to 1343 m(Ben Nevis in the Grampian Mountains - the highest in UK (state)). In the areas where basalts are distributed, as on the Antrim Plateau in Northern Ireland, columnar surface forms are developed (the “Paving of the Giants”, etc.). South Scottish Highlands (Mount Merrick, 842 m) is a series of plateaus. Northern Ireland has a relief similar to Southern Scotland. To the south of Scotland are located Pennines (Mount Cross Fell, 893 m), as well as domed cumberland mountains (Mount Scafell, 978 m) with glacial landforms. Peninsula Wales busy Cambrian mountains (Snowdon, 1085 m) with separate car ridges. On the Cornwall peninsula there is a series of remnant hills up to 500-600 m, separated by rolling lowlands. In southeastern England, flat lowlands composed of loose rocks alternate with elevated cuesta plateaus and ridges of limestone and chalk (Cotswold, Chiltern, North Downs, South Downs), Midland lowland, lowland London Basin, Fenn etc.
R. A. Eramov.
Geological structure and minerals. The British Isles are located almost entirely in the Caledonian folding zone; only to the south of the Bristol-London line are the folds of the Hercynian system developed. Since the beginning of the Paleozoic, the territory UK (state) belonged to the Caledonian geosyncline, divided into a series of deep sea depressions and elevated ridges. Large deposits accumulated in the depressions. At the end of the Silurian, these deposits were folded into folds and the ranges of Scotland and Wales rose from the geosyncline. In the depressions between the ridges, continental Devonian Carboniferous and Permian deposits accumulated. Since the Devonian period, all UK (state)(except Cornwall) turned into a platform, in Cornwall geosynclinal mobility earth's crust survived until the Carboniferous period. In the Meso-Cenozoic, the London Basin sagged. In the Cenozoic the whole island was uplifted and many clefts formed, especially in Scotland where volcanism is associated with them.
Minerals UK (state) confined to the coal system (hard coal), the Jurassic system (iron ore), and the Cornish folded massif (ores of tin and other non-ferrous metals). In the postwar years off the coast UK (state) found in the North Sea large deposits natural gas. Proven and probable reserves are estimated: hard coal at 170 billion T, iron ore in 2.9 billion. T(with an iron content of 25-30%).
UK (state) UK (state) Belousov
Climate oceanic with moderate temperatures, abundance precipitation, unstable weather of cyclonic type with frequent and strong winds. Average temperature January from 7°C in Cornwall to 3.5°C in eastern England; on the UK (state) frosts down to -18 ° C occur. In London, there are up to 100 days a year with temperatures below 0°C. In July, the temperature drops from 16-17°C in the London area to 11-13°C in Scotland. Precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year, with a slight maximum in autumn and winter, in the south. UK (state)- summer and autumn. The most abundant precipitation is in Scotland, Northern Ireland, the highlands of England and Wales (1000-1500 mm, in places up to 3000 mm in year). The smallest number of them - in southeast England (600-750 mm). Significant cloudiness and fog are characteristic.
Inland waters.UK (state) has a dense network of full-flowing short rivers throughout the year: Severn, Thames, Ouse, Tees, Tyne, Eden, Tweed, etc. The rivers are mainly fed by rain. High water in autumn and winter. Rivers don't freeze. Many rivers are connected by navigable canals. Favorable for navigation is the penetration into the lower reaches of the rivers of high tides. There are many lakes in the mountains, mainly of glacial and tectonic-glacial origin. Most large lakes: Loch Neagh, Loch Lomond, Loch Ness.
Soils. Mountain podzolic soils predominate in northern Scotland, combined on highly moistened plateaus with peat-bog soils, and on the most high peaks- with mountain-tundra soils; in the eastern coastal regions on moraine deposits - humus-podzolic soils. In southern Scotland and Northern Ireland there are acidic non-podzolized forest soils, which are replaced in the upper parts of the mountains by mountain podzolic soils. For northern England and Wales are characterized by soddy-pale-podzolic-gley and pseudopodzolic soils, and for central and southern England - forest brown gley and unsaturated soils, which in the areas of distribution of carbonate rocks (mainly in cuesta ridges) are replaced by soddy-calcareous soils (rendzins); near the Wash Bay and in some other coastal lowlands - alluvial marsh soils.
Vegetation. The zonal types of vegetation in the north are taiga and mixed forests pine, oak, and birch predominate; in the south, broad-leaved oak, hornbeam-oak, and oak-ash forests give way to oak-birch forests with altitude, and, in areas of limestone and chalk ridges, oak-beech forests. Forests occupy about 6% of the area UK (state) Their main arrays are in the eastern and southern regions. Forest and park artificial plantings are widespread. Meadows and heaths are characteristic everywhere. The upper belt of mountains is occupied by mountain meadows, heaths, and peat bogs.
Animal world. The forest fauna is extremely depleted; the fauna of open spaces is better represented. The most characteristic are: fox, hare, squirrel, hedgehog, various types of earth-moving mammals. From birds - wild pigeon, in Scotland - tundra and Scottish partridges, capercaillie. Rivers and lakes are rich in roach, barbel, and chub.
Protected areas. Protection of Nature UK (state) carried out by the system national parks, national natural (complex), forest reserves and reserves for the protection of waterfowl. The largest National parks with the protection of the entire landscape complex: Lake District, in Cumberland (picturesque mountain-glacial lakes, waterfalls, heather thickets, oak and birch forests); Snowdonia, on NW Wales ( mountainous area with numerous lakes, in the lower mountain belt - oak and chestnut forests). Large reserves: Dartmoor and Brecon Beacons.
natural areas. Scotland and Northern Ireland with mid-mountain and low-mountain relief, peat bogs, heaths, taiga forests. Wales and mountainous England with a significant dissection of the surface, heather and meadow vegetation, areas of broad-leaved forests in the lower mountain belt and on the hills of the lowlands. South-east England with flat relief, fertile brown forest soils, broad-leaved forests, strong plowing of lands.
Lit.: Stump D. and Beaver S., British Isles, trans. from English, M., 1948; Dobrynin B.F., Physical geography Western Europe, M., 1948; Demangeon A., Les Iles Britanniques, Gaels(90 thousand people). There are significant groups of Jews (about 500 thousand people) - mainly in large cities, as well as groups of immigrants from other countries: the West Indies (over 500 thousand people), India (over 200 thousand people), Pakistan (over 120 thousand people) and African countries (about 150 thousand people). Among European immigrants are Poles (over 100 thousand people), Germans (about 100 thousand people), French, Italians, etc. Official language and the spoken language of most of the population is English; part of the Irish, Welsh and Gaels also use their own languages, related to the Celtic languages. By religion, the majority of the indigenous population belongs to Protestant churches and sects (believing British - mainly to the Anglican Church, the Scots - to the Presbyterian); part of the inhabitants (including almost all the Irish) are Catholics. Until September 2, 1752, the Julian calendar was used, and from September 14, 1752, the Gregorian (see. The calendar ).
The population, despite emigration, grew rapidly from the middle of the 18th century. until the end of the 19th century, that is, during the heyday of English capitalism. From the end of the 19th century population growth began to decrease; only in the first years after World War II did the birth rate temporarily increase. natural increase The population is small (4.2 per 1,000 inhabitants versus 14 in the 1970s). The reduction in the birth rate affected the age composition of the population: residents under 15 in 1861 accounted for 37.7% of the population, 27% in 1921, 23.9% in 1969, while the share of the age group over 64 in 1969 reached 12.6% against 7.4% in 1931. For internal migrations, since the 20s. 20th century characterized by the movement of the population from the northern parts of the country, where its depressed areas are located, to the south. UK (state), later to the south (“drift south”), and from the 30s. also to Midland. In external migrations, on the one hand, the influx of "colored" immigrants from the Commonwealth countries, which in UK (state) more than 1 million (laws were passed in 1962 and 1968 restricting their entry); on the other hand, the emigration of part of the intelligentsia and engineering and technical personnel (mainly to the United States, as well as to the Commonwealth of Australia and Canada).
In 1969 there were 23.5 million people. economically active population, about 60% of which is employed in the sphere of material production. Characterized by a high proportion of wage laborers and a very small proportion of intermediate strata of the population compared to other countries. The distribution of the economically active population (90% of which are workers and employees) by sectors of the economy: industry and construction 47.9%, agriculture 3.6%, transport and communications 6.7%, trade 11.7%, financial and banking and insurance sector 3.8%, education, healthcare and other professional services 12.1%, civil service, army 6.0%, other services 8.2%.
V UK (state) the highest level of urbanization compared to other developed countries: about 80% of the population lives in cities, of which about - in large cities with a population of more than 100 thousand: there are 91 such cities (1967), including 3 with a population of over 1 million people: Greater London (7.7 million in 1969), Birmingham and Glasgow (1.1 million each). the urban population is concentrated in large urban areas - conurbations: in London (7.7 million), Manchester (2.4 million), West Midlands (center Birmingham; 2.3 million), Clydeside (Glasgow; 1.8 million), in West Yorkshire (Leeds; 1.7 million), in Merseyside (Liverpool; 1.4 million) and in Tyneside (Newcastle; about 1 million). The population density is high - 226 people. for 1 km 2.
V. Historical outline
The oldest human footprints on the territory UK (state) belong to the Early and Middle Paleolithic. Most of the remains found ancient man belongs to the so-called Cro-Magnon type and belongs to the late Paleolithic, when the territory of Britain was still one with the continent; approximately around the 5th millennium BC. e. sea separated UK (state) from the mainland. Big changes, possibly related to the resettlement of tribes more high culture(either Iberians from the Iberian Peninsula, or people of the “Mediterranean” race from France), occurred during the late Mesolithic period and especially during the Neolithic period (3rd - early 2nd millennium BC), when, along with hunting and fisheries appear and gradually become the main occupations of the population - cattle breeding and agriculture. Stone tools were improved, then giving way to bronze, and later iron, weaving developed.
Celtic Britain. During the period of the Late Bronze and Early Iron (800-700 BC), migration from the continent to the territory begins UK (state) Celts (the last invasion - the Belgae, about 75 BC). The Celts brought with them elements of the Iron Age culture that originally coexisted with the Bronze Age. For the Celtic and Celtic population of Britain, the conditional name "Britons" was established. Before the Roman conquest Britons were already at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of elements of a class society. The emergence of tribal and military nobility, as well as the existence of patriarchal slavery, testified to the growth of social inequality. The Britons developed cattle breeding and agriculture; they used a heavy wheeled plow, a hand mill, Potter's wheel, processed animal skins, were engaged in weaving, developed mines, traded with merchants who came from the continent. The tribes of the Britons sometimes united in tribal unions headed by military leaders ("kings"). Some tribal centers later grew into Roman and medieval cities: Camulodunum (now Colchester), Eboracum (now York), Londinium (now London), etc.
Roman Britain. After the conquest of Gaul by the Romans in the middle of the 1st c. BC
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