(chap. 1-4)
M .: Thought. 1980.390 s.
Publisher's abstract:
The monograph sets out the centuries-old history of Ireland from ancient times to the present day. The book provides a picture of the socio-economic and political development countries, the most important facts and events that characterize this development are considered. Particular attention is paid to showing the heroic struggle of the Irish people for independence and national self-determination.
I. Ireland during the early Middle Ages
Material culture of the Irish
Social order in Ireland
The emergence of feudal relations
The emergence of the state
Adoption of Christianity
Culture of Ireland
Norman invasion of Ireland
Battle of Clontarf
II. The invasion of Ireland by the Anglo-Norman feudal lords. Pale and unconquered Ireland
English invasion of Ireland
Henry II of Ireland
The struggle of the Irish against the conquerors
Pale - English colony
Pale - the bulwark of aggression of the English feudal lords in Ireland
Unconquered Ireland
Rise of the Anglo-Irish nobility
Peil's decline in the 14th - 15th centuries.
III. Ireland under the Tudors and the first Stewarts
The beginning of the strengthening of the power of the English king in Ireland
The policy of surrendering and re-granting estates and the beginning of massive land confiscations
Colonization of Munster and the "dispensation" of Connaught
National Liberation War (1594-1603)
Colonization of Ulster
Cancellation of the clan system in 1605
Checking and correcting land titles
Strafford's policy in Ireland
"New English" in Ireland
Aggravation of contradictions in Ireland in the first half of the 17th century.
IV. Irish uprising 1641-1652 and the completion of the English conquest of Ireland
The beginning of the English bourgeois revolution and the maturation of the Irish uprising
The beginning of the Irish uprising
The Long Parliament and the Irish Rebellion
Formation of the Irish Confederation of Catholics
Truce of 1643 and its aftermath
Intensification of internal strife in Ireland
Ireland - stronghold of royalist forces
Conquest of Ireland by Cromwell
Ireland's new dispensation and its aftermath
Ireland after the restoration of the monarchy in England. Second Irish uprising 1689-1691
V. The period of the punitive laws (1692-1776)
Breach of the Limerick Treaty
Punitive laws
The ruin of Irish industry
Agrarian relations. The Situation of the Working Masses
Laws Against Apprentice and Workers' Unions
Governance of Ireland in the 18th century
The first symptoms of dissatisfaction among the Anglo-Irish. Swift's Pamphlets
Liberal opposition
Catholic Committee. Formation of a national movement
Popular resistance. Tori and rappari
Strengthening of the peasant movement in the 60-70s. "White guys" and other secret societies
Vi. The rise of the national liberation struggle at the end of the 18th century.(the chapter has been prepared as a separate file)
American War of Independence and Ireland
Volunteer movement
Henry Grattan
The first successes of the national movement
Conquest of parliamentary autonomy
Failure of the reform campaign. A split among volunteers
Ireland in the second half of the 80s. Towards new storms
Deepening social conflicts in the Irish countryside
Influence of the French bourgeois revolution on Ireland
Irish United
Wolf Ton
The transition of the reaction to the offensive. Terror and provocation
Under the banner of an independent republic
Revolt of 1798
Union 1801
Emmett's conspiracy
Vii. Ireland in the first half of the 19th century (1801-1848)
Ireland after the introduction of the union
Movement for the "emancipation of Catholics." Bill of 1829 Lichfieldhouse Agreement
The Peasant War Against Tithing and Its Results
The beginning of the organized labor movement. Utopian Socialist William Thompson
National movement of the 40s. Resellers. "Young Ireland"
Formation of a revolutionary situation. Irish Confederation
1848 in Ireland
VIII. Agrarian coup. Fenian movement
Ireland after 1848
Agrarian coup
The struggle of peasants against being driven from the land
Attempts to solve the agrarian question in a constitutional way. League for the protection of tenants' rights
Fenian movement
"Irish people". Repression of the Fenians
Uprising of 1867
"Manchester Martyrs"
Irish Prisoner Amnesty Movement
The First International and the struggle for the independence of Ireland. Irish Sections of the International Working Men's Association
Towards new frontiers of the liberation struggle
IX. Ireland in the last third of the 19th century
Aggravation of the Irish question in the 70s of the XIX century. Gomrulers. Charles Parnell
New program of the national movement. Michael DeWitt
Irish National Land League. Entry into the struggle of the broad peasant masses (1879-1882)
The first attempt at introducing home rule. Orangeism (1885-1886)
The onset of the reaction (1887-1891). Gaelic League
Allies of the Irish people in England
Agrarian reform
Ireland at the turn of the 20th century Labor movement. The beginning of the spread of the ideas of Marxism
X. Ireland in 1900-1918 The maturation of the liberation revolution
Economic and socio-political shifts in Irish society at the beginning of the XX century.
The main political groupings in Ireland at the beginning of the XX century.
Mass movement at the beginning of the XX century.
Completion of the formation of the Irish nation. Ulster Crisis 1912-1914
Intensification of the exploitation of Ireland by British imperialism during the imperialist war. The maturation of the prerequisites for the national liberation revolution
The Dublin Uprising of 1916 and its aftermath
Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia and Ireland.
The formation of the national anti-imperialist coalition
The Irish Volunteers Organization - the core of the national rebel army
The workers 'and peasants' movement in last years first world war
XI. Irish national liberation revolution 1919-1923
Anglo-Irish War 1919-1921
The Irish working class in the struggle for the country's independence. Class Struggle during the Anglo-Irish War
Anglo-Irish Treaty December 6, 1921 and the formation of the Irish Free State
Second stage of the revolution. Civil War 1922-1923
Results of the Irish Revolution
Ulster during the revolution. The split of Ireland
XII. Ireland 20-50s. Attempts to gain independence on the capitalist path
Ireland under the rule of Kumman on Gal 1923-1931
Mass struggle against the Cosgrave regime
National-bourgeois transformations and socio-political struggle in the first half of the 30s
Irish fascism and its downfall
Ireland on the eve of World War II
Ireland during World War II and the first post-war decade
Northern Ireland - a colony of British imperialism
XIII. Modern Ireland (late 50s-70s)
Internal political struggle around the "new course"
Socio-economic and political problems of the Irish Republic of the 60s-70s
The labor movement at the present stage
Foreign policy of the Republic of Ireland
Northern Ireland crisis
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Explanation of reasons and discussion - on the page Wikipedia: Renaming / March 21, 2016. |
Gaining independence
In 1919, the Irish Republican Army launched active hostilities against British troops and police. On April 15-27, 1919, the republic of Soviet Limerick exists on the territory of the county of the same name. The Republic of Ireland was created, which included the entire territory of the island.
In December 1921, a peace treaty was signed between Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland received the status of a dominion (the so-called Irish Free State). The exception was the six most industrially developed northeastern counties (Northern Ireland) with a predominance of Protestants, which remained part of the United Kingdom. However, Great Britain retained military bases on the territory of Ireland, the right to receive ransom payments for the former possessions of English landlords.
However, the National Army, reinforced by British support, proved to be stronger, and on May 24, 1923, Frank Aiken gave the order to lay down their arms. The subordinates in 1926 created the Fianna File party, led by Eamon de Valera, which is now the largest party in the Republic of Ireland. The insubordinates went underground.
In 1937 the country adopted official name"Eire".
Complete independence
In 1949, Ireland was declared an independent republic. The withdrawal of the republic from the British Commonwealth was announced. Only in the 60s did emigration from Ireland cease and population growth became positive.
Despite the fact that Northern Ireland is geographically part of Ireland, the majority of the population is Protestant Unionists, supporters of retaining membership in the United Kingdom. Catholics now make up up to a third of the population.
Since the 1960s, Northern Ireland has been the scene of fierce confrontation between the IRA, Protestant terrorists and the security forces of the United Kingdom (British Armed Forces, Royal Ulster Police) (see article Conflict in Northern Ireland). IRA fighters carry out attacks outside Ireland, including in London. Protestant terrorists carry out separate acts on the territory of the Republic of Ireland.
In some cases, there are military clashes between British security forces and Protestant militants.
In 1973 Ireland became a member of the European Union. In the 1990s, Ireland entered a period of rapid economic growth.
In the VI century. BC NS. here appeared the Celtic tribes, or, as the Romans called them, the Scots. By this time, they were resettled from the regions. Central Europe to Gaul, Britain, Northern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula. They probably moved to Ireland in two streams - from Northern Gaul and Northern Britain. The first conquerors of Ireland are considered the Celtic tribe of Goidels, followed by the Belgae, Britons, Picts, etc. The newcomers, in contrast to the local population who used bronze tools, used iron tools. By the beginning of n. NS. they apparently took possession of the entire island. It is known from the chronicles that around 10 A.D. n. NS. in Ireland there was an uprising of people of plebeian origin, who managed to deal with all the nobility. "This indicates the domination of the Scottish conquerors over the more ancient population," 1 notes Engels about this event. But by the V century. n. NS. The Celts (Scots) had already mixed with the local population, the Goidel language was formed as a special dialect of the Celtic languages, and the inhabitants began to call themselves Goidels (in the Anglicized form - Gaels).
Material culture of the Irish
Cattle breeding has been one of the most important occupations of the Irish since ancient times. They raised cattle, horses, pigs, sheep. From the laws of the Bregons - the barbaric law of ancient Ireland, set out in the collections of legal treatises "Schenhus Mor" ("The Great Book of Antiquity") - it is clear that disputes related to the ownership of livestock were very frequent among the Irish, and the amount of fines imposed for various violations were expressed in a certain number of livestock. Cattle were mainly a medium of exchange. The abduction of cattle is also told in sagas - ancient prose stories about heroes. Cattle breeding significantly influenced the idea of the ancient Irish about the calendar, their customs and rituals.
At the same time, the inhabitants of many regions of Ireland, especially the central plain and the south-west of the island, have been engaged in agriculture along with cattle breeding since ancient times. In the laws of the Bregons, barley, oat flour, wheat, malt are mentioned among natural offerings to the leaders; a jug of milk and a piece of cake are said to be the poor man's common food. But the main grain was oats. Oatmeal was considered the favorite dish of the Irish; wheat bread was used mainly by the nobility, and then as a delicacy. The harvest festival was held annually on August 1. In the chronicles and sagas, the years of harvest were especially noted - as the years of prosperity for the people.
In agriculture, a transfer system of tillage was practiced with a periodic change of plots of arable land. Since ancient times, the Irish have plowed with a plow. The Celts brought the plow with them. Often arable land had to be cleared from under the forest. The grain was ground with stone grain graters, and from the V century. n. NS. water mills appeared. The inhabitants of the coast were engaged in fishing as an auxiliary occupation.
The craft had not yet separated from agriculture, the peasants themselves were engaged in it: they spun flax and wool, weaved, dressed leather, sewed clothes and shoes, made pottery; blacksmithing and jewelry making were considered privileged occupations; products of blacksmiths and jewelers were intended primarily for leaders and nobility.
The Irish settled in comfortable and safe places in the river valleys and in the hills. The main building material was wood. The dwelling of a simple Irishman usually consisted of a round cage, woven of brushwood and reeds, and smeared with clay, with an opening instead of a window, with a straw roof supported by a pillar in the middle; the smoke from the hearth came out through a hole made in the roof. The floor was earthen. Along the walls were wooden chambers ("boxes") on which people slept.
The most ancient fortresses - hill-forts, fortified by a moat and a palisade - were Kruahan in Connoth, Tara in Mita, Emine Macha and Eilich in Ulster. Eblan was located on the site of modern Dublin.
Social order in Ireland
Ireland, unlike Gaul and Southeast Britain, was not conquered by the Romans. Of no small importance was the fact that Ireland found itself aloof from the movements of tribes and peoples that took place on the continent of Europe during the fall of the Roman Empire and the formation of barbarian states and accelerated the process of decomposition of primitive communal relations and the formation of a feudal system.
Irish society consisted of free and non-free members. All free Irish lived in patriarchal families - Finns. Under the leadership of the father - the flag - finna united his closest relatives with their families - sons, brothers of his father, grandfather and great-grandfather. The next Finns included cousins, second cousins, etc. (Several Finns made up a sept, or clan. All members of the sept were descended from one ancestor, bore the same name (from the 10th century AD with the prefix "Mac", which meant "son", or "O" - "grandson.") The larger tribal associations were clans, several clans made up a tribe.
One land saga says: "There are no ditches, no hedges, no stones, no walls on the ground ... but only smooth fields." This meant that in Ireland at that time, the land was the common property of the sept. Only certain plots of land were allotted to the finances for permanent use, on which houses and outbuildings were erected; if all Finns died out, the land was returned to the sept. Pastures, forests, swamps, mountains were the property of the clan; they were used by all the Finns who make up a particular sept or clan. The division of these common domains was considered a flagrant violation of customary law. Arable land was also the property of these septa and clans. But the finals were allocated separate areas for processing. The lack of private ownership of land was emphasized in the "Shenhus Mor". “Each tribesman,” it said, “is entitled to keep his own piece of land from the lands of the tribe; he has no right to sell, alienate, hide or give it away as a fine for a crime or payment under an agreement. "
Land use among the common Irish was governed by the Gewelkind (later named) custom. The land was divided among all the Fin heads who made up the sept; if any of those who participated in the division died, then the plot of the deceased did not pass by inheritance to his children, and all the arable lands of the clan were again combined together and the leader appointed a new redistribution, thus cutting the plots of land to each member of the clan. This took into account the degree of kinship, as well as the number of legitimate and illegitimate sons (women were not taken into account). Such redistributions were carried out when a new leader took office, when new members were admitted to a sept or when they were expelled from it.
At the head of the tribal unions of the Irish were chiefs elected by full members; in their hands was concentrated power over the subordinate territories, they led during the wars. The successors of the leaders were elected during their lifetime and were called Tanists. Each of the leaders and Tanists was allocated an official allotment from the ancestral lands, which, after the death of its owner, was not included in the redistribution according to the custom of Gevelkind and was not inherited, but was transferred to the successor in office. This custom was called tanistri.
In addition, there was the right to inherit (to children) land plots along with the profession. But it extended only to bards - poets, musicians and singers who sang the feats of leaders and their relatives, doctors who treated members of the sept, Bregons - keepers of customs and judges, philids or chroniclers - experts in the history and genealogy of septa and clans, druids - priests, and also on heavily armed soldiers. These professions were considered very important and honorable in society, and those who owned them occupied a privileged position.
Livestock and movable property were privately owned by members of the fin. They were inherited after the death of the flag, taking into account the degree of kinship. In the absence of relatives at the flag, his inheritance completely passed to the sept.
The Irish clan was patriarchal - the wife passed into the clan of the husband, and her relatives were rewarded for her. At the same time, she could freely dispose of her dowry, alienate it, and in case of divorce, receive it back. In family relations, traces of a primitive pair marriage were still preserved: it was allowed to enter into temporary marriages for short periods, to have concubines along with the main wife, for whom remuneration was also paid, and the children who lived with them received a share in the inheritance and were taken into account when dividing lands according to the Gevelkind custom. It was widely practiced to give up children to be raised by their relatives. On this basis, strong ties of twinning arose between the foster brothers.
Blood feud during this period was replaced by a fine for the murdered - erik, which was paid by the relatives of the offender, as a rule, in kind. The size of the fine was determined by the Bregon - the judge, and for this he was entitled to 1/11 of the eric.
The emergence of feudal relations
A feature of the social development of Ireland in the early Middle Ages was the formation of feudal relations while maintaining the remnants of land ownership of sept and clans, as well as family ties. Free members of society were divided into nobles, who made up the clan or clan nobility, and simple - peasants. All free, regardless of this division, were first called Fenians, later this term began to be used only in relation to ordinary free ones.
The clan nobility was divided into three categories: the lower were the leaders of the sept and clans, the rulers of the larger territories stood above them, and then the rulers of the main provinces and regions of Ireland - the upper class of the noble. An outward sign of the difference in social status in society was the color of the raincoats. Druids, Bregons and representatives of other honorable professions stood close to the clan nobility.
Under the dominance of clan ownership of land, the growth of private land ownership and the accumulation of wealth among individual families proceeded slowly. The Hevelkind custom, as the population grew, led to the fragmentation and crushing of the land of ordinary Irish people. At the same time, the treatises "Shenhus Mor" contain information about the facts of land sales and seizures of wastelands, and private land ownership is recognized. The increase in private land ownership by the nobility was also facilitated by the monopolization of public positions by individual noble Finns. Although the custom of Tanistri was adhered to by the Irish, nevertheless, members of the same noble Finna usually became leaders and Tanists. Therefore, the allotments assigned to them in fact became their permanent possession, despite the fact that sometimes they had to achieve this by force of arms. Victories in internecine wars also multiplied wealth primarily at the expense of the property of the defeated sept. In "Shenhus Mor" and the chronicles, numerous facts of strife between the leaders and the plundering of neighboring sept and clans are cited. But the most easily and quickly the leaders increased their possessions and their personal wealth by capturing the wastelands and increasing the herds: after all, the sept and clan ownership of the wastelands and livestock did not extend.
Shanhus Mor says, "One of the sept's duties is to support each of its members, and the sept does this to the best of its ability." But in the early Middle Ages, many septa were no longer able to prevent the ruin of individual families and were forced to turn to the leaders with a request to endow them with cattle. This is how forms of dependence on the basis of keeping livestock arose. The Bregonne laws also contain a lot of information about the poor, or "people without support" who have lost their property and allotments. Among them were strangers seeking protection, forgiven criminals and prisoners enslaved by the leaders. There were also slaves. The sources of slavery were ruin, as well as the capture of a defeated enemy: some of the slaves were bought mainly in neighboring Britain.
However, the main means of exploitation was not slavery, but primitive forms of feudal dependence, entangled in remnants of patriarchal relations. The largest group among the non-free Irish were the so-called Fuidirs. They were not members of the sept, they, like slaves, were forbidden to testify about free people and make any deals with free people. But the chiefs and wealthy flachs often placed them on their lands, especially in the wastelands, endowed them with cattle and implements and gave them the opportunity to run their own small economy, taxing them for this with various duties, including biatad - a kind of rent for products. According to Bregonne law, the landowner could turn a piece of land of such a fuidir into hereditary holding if his ancestors up to the third generation were the fuidirs on it. Some of the fuidirs were used as domestic servants, courtyard workers and shepherds. Those belonging to this category were in the position of slaves. The exploitation of the Fuidirs was an important source of enrichment for the leaders. In one treatise "Shenhus Mor" it is noted: "He brings Fuidirs in order to increase his wealth."
The income of the Irish chiefs consisted of the rents collected by the chiefs from the holders of their domains and various debtors, and the extortions received from all the sept and clans of the territories under the chieftain. The first group of income was essentially a feudal rent paid by small producers who found themselves in one form or another in land and property dependence on the leaders. The second group of duties and payments was borne by all free members of sept and clans by virtue of their position as subjects of this leader as a ruler. The free Irish were obliged to provide the leaders with food and fodder for the maintenance of foot and mounted soldiers, to accept the detachments of these troops on the post with their full maintenance for certain time, as well as to provide hospitality to the leader and his retinue when they visit the territories under their control. These duties were very burdensome, especially since the leaders in wartime always increased them.
So, in Ireland, in the process of the disintegration of clan and the formation of feudal relations, communal ownership of land was preserved "in full force"(Engels) 2 and the land plots of many members of the sept, as well as the leaders, did not turn into allods (private property), but continued to remain a property that could not be freely alienated. But along with this, in various ways, the private land ownership of the nobles was created, to which the septa and clans did not have the right of ownership. The preservation of family ties and communal ownership of land slowed down the transformation of property differentiation into feudal inequality.
As a result, the clan nobility was alien to the orders of the feudal hierarchy, characteristic of other countries. The superior leader in Ireland usually did not grant the land to the subordinate leader as a lord vassal, but had power over him as a senior official, elected according to the customs of the tribal system to fulfill the duties of military and civil administration of the territory. "The subordinate position," notes Engels, "of one leader in relation to another in Ireland was expressed only in the payment of tribute ... and a special tax for the upkeep of troops ... but in no case in military service." The process of the emergence of the state did not destroy this feature, but consolidated it.
The emergence of the state
By the 5th century n. NS. Ireland was divided into five large provincial areas - Ulster, Connaught, Munster, South and North Leinster. Obviously, this division took place on the basis of tribal alliances that arose in the early period of decomposition of primitive communal relations. In the process of the emergence of the state, independent "kingdoms" were formed in these provinces.
Power in each of them was in the hands of the "king" - riaga, elected together with the Tanist leaders of the given province. At the riag there was a council of the elders. Each such "kingdom" was divided into certain territories - the tuat, the power in which belonged to the "regional kings" elected by the leaders of the sept members of the tuat; the council of chiefs under the king had the right to remove him. Medieval Ireland consisted of 184 tuats - territorial organizations, the appearance of which did not destroy the division of the Irish into septa and clans, but, on the contrary, supplemented it, becoming part of the clan system. Sometimes the Tuat coincided with the clan, sometimes the clan occupied the territory of two Tuat.
The elections of chiefs, riags and their tannists were usually carried out on the sacred hills, according to the traditional ritual. Standing on a stone, the future leader swore an oath to observe all customs and to peacefully hand over his position to the Tanist when required. At his election, the Tanist stood on this stone with only one foot and took the same oath as the leader.
The chiefs and riags had their own permanent detachments of warriors. These were lightly armed infantry units, whose weapons consisted of short spears, javelins and bow and arrows, and heavily armed infantry units wearing iron helmets and chain mail. They were armed with long swords, wide and sharp battle axes with a long handle, which allowed them to strike the enemy from a distance. Horse war chariots and packs of specially trained dogs were used to attack the enemy. The custom continued to display the skulls of slain enemies or their tongues as trophies. Chiefs and riagi often gathered their troops and held festivities with warrior contests and performances of bards singing their military prowess. At the same time, strife and strife continued between the leaders and the Riags, from which even the hostage system, which was widely used in their relations, could not save them.
In the II century. n. NS. riagi Mita - one of the five "kingdoms" (mainly on the territory of North Leinster) became the supreme kings of all Ireland, ard-riags. But the independence of the "kingdoms" subordinate to this union remained. Ard-riag did not have its own administrative apparatus; only the military forces of all "kingdoms" were under its authority (in the event of a general military threat).
Usually, when taking office, the Ard-riags traveled around the "kingdoms" under their control, accepted gifts and took hostages. Irish kings did not have legislative and judicial power. The keepers and interpreters of customs and judges were still the Bregons of the sept and clans, and the ard-riag was given the right only to resolve disputes between the riags subordinate to him. While maintaining the independence of the riags, the council during the ard-riag in Tara could not stop the civil strife. “Apparently, the main privilege of the king was the collection of tribute, and not the regular administration of justice,” 4 - stated Engels. In addition, the collection of taxes itself was often the cause of strife and military clashes between the riags. So, around 330, the strife between the brothers of Ard-riaga Mita led to the fact that three of his rebellious brothers, united, invaded central part Ulster, destroyed the ancient capital of this province, Emine Mahu and formed a "kingdom" called Orial. By the beginning of the X century. in the north of the island a new "kingdom" of Ulster arose. The descendants of the sons of the Riag Meath in Ulster, divided into two powerful and noble sept of Ulster - O "Nile and O" Donnelly, held power over a significant part of the lands of this province until the beginning of the 17th century.
Back in the 5th century. the clan nobility of Ireland made attempts to expand their conquests to neighboring Britain. Irish troops invaded western part Britain - Wales, inhabited by a Celtic tribe of Bretons, and took possession of it, but in the VI century. local troops drove them out. More successful was the Irish invasion of northern Britain, the country of Alba, or Caledonia, inhabited by the Celtic Pictish tribe. She was separated from Ireland by a narrow strait, which the Irish swam freely in their boats. The conquest began in the 4th century. with east coast Ulster. Over the course of several decades, the Irish managed to capture the western and northern parts of Alba. In 470, the ruler of one of the Tuats in Antrim, Fergus Mac Er, with three brothers crossed to Alba and on the lands colonized by the Irish - they were called Scots - in the lands he founded his kingdom called Argil (Eastern Gaels). Alba was later called Scotland by the name of the Scots.
Thus, the fragmentation of Ireland in the first centuries of our era was not eliminated. Internecine wars and other forms of power struggle between individual representatives of the clan nobility weakened the country and delayed its economic and social development. All the chronicles of Ireland are full of information about strife among the clan nobility, murders, devastation and robberies.
Adoption of Christianity
At the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system, the Irish, like other peoples, deified the forces of nature, stars, forests, valleys, rivers, streams. A host of demigods, the so-called sids, who resembled good fairies, were also revered. According to the ideas of the ancient Irish, the Sids actively intervened in the lives of people, participated in battles, entered into love affairs with people, and helped them in various ways. The Irish also believed in many spirits incarnating in various creatures, in vows, prohibitions and spells, dreams and various omens. An important role in the public life of pagan Ireland was played by the priests - magicians and soothsayers, who, like the Celts of Gaul, were called druids. They were the guardians and interpreters of religious and ancestral customs and teachers of youth.
In the process of the disintegration of the primitive communal system of imposing feudal relations, Christianity began to gain more and more popularity among the nobility. Of no small importance in the spread of Christianity on the island was the missionary activity of Patrick (373-463), who was later declared a saint by the Catholic Church.
Patrick was a native of Northern Britain, the son of the tax collector of the Roman emperor in that country. At the age of 16, during the invasion of one of the Irish detachments into Britain, he was captured and for six years was in Ireland in slavery, grazing cattle. There he became a zealous Christian. After fleeing Ireland, Patrick traveled extensively in Europe, was ordained a presbyter in Gaul, and in 432 as a bishop, the Pope sent him to Ireland to preach Christianity and fight Pelagianism, a heretical teaching that influenced many Christian communities in Ireland. Under the influence of Patrick, ard-riag Loeghair adopted the new faith and allowed him the free preaching of Christianity throughout the country. Patrick, as the archbishop of Ireland, settled in Armagh, which has since become its ecclesiastical capital.
Although most of the Irish nobility converted to Christianity under the influence of Patrick, the struggle against paganism continued for several centuries. The Irish Church had peculiar features that distinguished it from the church orders and customs usual for Catholicism. Its organization was adapted to the clan structure, and spiritual positions became the monopoly of certain families. The bishop's diocese usually coincided with the territory of the clan, and he himself was elected from people pleasing to the leader and connected by family ties with the members of the clans. Celibacy (celibacy of the clergy) was not observed, parish priests lived in clans and were more subordinate to local customs than to the orders of the Catholic hierarchy. Bishops did not apply to Rome for confirmation in office, payments due to the pope for spiritual benefits were collected irregularly. The leaders often appropriated church property and income, and also levied the clergy with the usual extortions for the laity. The monastic communities in Ireland chose their own abbots, not observing the charter of Benedict of Nursia, which regulated the life of Catholic monasteries in medieval Europe.
The Irish clergy enjoyed privileges along with the bards, Bregons, and others. The clans allocated certain plots of land for the maintenance of their clergy, which were exempted from duties in favor of the leaders, were not subject to redistribution and were at the disposal of the bishops. In addition, donations of land to individual churches and monasteries, both by individuals and by septa and clans, have become widespread. Church lands, regardless of their origin, were leased, for which the owners received feudal rent.
The adoption of Christianity in Ireland hastened the process of disintegration of primitive communal relations. In 438, on the initiative of Patrick, a special commission of nine people was created (it also included King Loeghair and Patrick) to record the ancient legal provisions that were kept orally by the judges - the Bregons. Later, a collection of legal treatises "Schenhus Mor" appeared. This was an important step towards the codification of Irish customary law. In essence, these treatises recorded the customs that had developed in the course of the decomposition of primitive communal relations - in the field of tax law, land orders, property relations and social differentiation.
Culture of Ireland
From the ancient Irish, various monuments of material culture have come down to us - tools, utensils, weapons, jewelry, ruins of houses, dolmens and cromlechs (as they call stones erected on the graves of noble people and warriors or in honor of the gods), as well as monuments of oral folk art - Irish legends (sagas). There are hundreds of sagas. They narrate about various ancient legends and events and praise the legendary heroes, leaders and riags. They were created over many centuries by nameless folk storytellers, and they were recounted at folk festivals and feasts at the leaders and riags, usually one saga per evening.
The oldest and most popular cycle of the Irish sagas in the Middle Ages is the Ulad cycle, which originated at the court of the Riags of Ulster (in ancient times it was called Ulad). It tells about the struggle between the riags of Ulad and Connoth, which, according to the chronicles, lasted about 1,000 years, until the 2nd century. n. NS. The legendary hero of these sagas was first the riag Ulada Konchobar, and then his nephew Cuchulainn, born, according to one version, from the god of light. In Cuchulainn, the features of the hero of the period of the disintegration of the tribal system were embodied. Particularly noted are his strength and dexterity, loyalty to his duty and honor, generosity to defeated enemies and compassion for the weak and oppressed. Later, the features of the heroes of the Irish sagas were used in Celtic Britain by storytellers who wrote the legends about King Arthur and his soldiers who protected the Britons from the invasions of the warlike Saxons, which began in the 5th century. n. NS.
With the spread of Christianity in Ireland, the Druids were forced to give way to the clergy, and their functions as teachers of youth and guardians of heroic and ancestral traditions passed to the bards and chroniclers - the Philids. Bards performed their songs to the accompaniment of the harp at the courts of noble people or wandering around the villages. According to their skill, bards were divided into eight categories. After the introduction of Christianity, many special schools for the training of bards arose in the country, which existed until the 17th century, until they were banned by the English authorities, who saw in the bards, and not without reason, "the main carriers of the national, anti-English tradition" 5. There were also special schools for the Bregons.
Along with the schools of bards and Bregons, many monastery schools appeared, where for seven years young men were trained and educated not only from Ireland, but also from other European countries. Those who graduated from these schools became priests or monks. catholic church... The training was carried out at Latin... If literature, poetry, music were studied in the schools of bards, then in the monastery schools the main subjects were sacred scripture, as well as philosophy, geography, astronomy and geometry in the interpretation inherent in medieval church culture.
Already in the IV century. in Ireland, the alphabetical writing was known, and with the introduction of Christianity, the Latin alphabet began to be used. Monastic schools became centers of writing, the activity of which was of great importance for the correspondence of books of religious or secular content.
The founding of monasteries and monasteries contributed to the colonization and development of a number of uninhabited territories of Ireland, as well as the discovery of the islands in the North Atlantic that were previously unknown to Europeans and the creation of the first settlements there long before the arrival of the Normans. Monk Brandon of Munster in the VI century. visited Scotland, West Britain and Wales. His followers, hermit monks, settled first in the Hebrides, and then in the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Around 725, Irish monks discovered the Faroe Islands and established their settlement there, which lasted until the arrival of the Normans. According to Irish and Icelandic sources, they also discovered Iceland, settling there. This was at the end of the 8th century, that is, 100 years before the Normans from Scandinavia arrived in Iceland.
In the VI-VIII centuries. Ireland was one of the centers of Christianity in Europe, from where it began to spread to other territories. “The Island of Saints and Scientists” they called it at that time. So, the Irishman Colomba went to Scotland and converted the British Scots and Picts to Christianity. Since 590 Columban preached Christianity in Gaul, Burgundy, Switzerland and Italy, where he founded one of the largest monasteries of the Middle Ages - Bobbio. Gallus founded the Monastery of St. Gallen in Switzerland, Fridolin successfully carried out missionary work among the Allemans, and Kilian among the Franks on the Main. Irish monks at the invitation of Charlemagne taught in Pavia. The head of the palace school under Charles the Bald was the Irish scientist, the largest medieval philosopher in Europe, John Scott Eriugena (810-877). He tried to replace the contemporary scholastic philosophy based on belief in miracles with a more rational system. Eriugena's teachings were later condemned by the church as heretical.
Irish culture of the 6th-9th centuries was the usual, ecclesiastical culture characteristic of the emerging feudal society in Europe. It was carried by educated monks and clergy, and its influence on the broad masses of the people was limited mainly to the religious sphere; the customs and mores of the Irish under the influence of Christianity have undergone minor changes. Its successes refute the racist fabrications of British bourgeois historians about the eternal backwardness of the Irish people, about their inability to develop independently.
Norman invasion of Ireland
Fragmented and torn apart by the feuds of the leaders, Ireland from the end of the VIII century. was invaded by the Normans from the Scandinavian Peninsula (or "Danes", as they are also called in historical literature).
As a result of the disintegration of the tribal system and the emergence of feudal relations among the peoples of the Scandinavian Peninsula, their tribal leaders - Yarls began to make campaigns with the aim of plundering foreign territories, which later received the name "Viking campaigns". Then they began to gain a foothold for a long time in the occupied territories, to build fortresses and forts in convenient harbors both for military purposes and for storing their booty. For the manufacture of weapons, the Normans already used iron, rich deposits of which were available on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The main weapons were the heavy battle ax, long sword, and chain mail. The Vikings were especially attracted by the richer and more cultured countries in comparison with their homeland. Western Europe where the feudal system has already taken shape; raids and plunders of the Normans inflicted great damage on these countries.
Capturing in the VIII century. The Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland Islands, located between Ireland and Scandinavia, and having established a number of their strongholds there, the Normans launched predatory attacks on Irish territory that lasted more than 200 years. In 795 they landed on the island. Ratlin off the coast of Antrim and devastated it; in 798 they settled in the Dublin area, and since then the Irish chronicles scrupulously report on numerous expeditions and robberies of the Normans, on the destruction of churches, monasteries and settlements of the Irish. In 818 they landed on the southern coast of Ireland, in the Wexford area, two years later - near the present city of Cork, and then at Limerick. They also took possession of Armagh, the ecclesiastical capital of Ireland. These were all ancient Irish settlements, geographical position which was very convenient for turning them into strongholds and seaports Normans, facilitating their ties with Scandinavia and the occupied territories, as well as for storing and exporting prey from there. Thus, the Normans created in the southeast and southwest coast Ireland has its seaports - Dublin, Wexford, Cork and Limerick, surrounding the richest and most developed part of Ireland from the sea, which later became the main target of their plunder.
In the first half of the IX century. Viking Torgils managed to subdue all of Ireland. Gathering an army of 12 thousand soldiers, he loaded it into 120 boats, along the rivers of War and Liffey, he invaded the central part of the island and took it; he was also supported by other Norman troops from the areas of Limerick, Dendalk and Waterford. Torgils made his capital the city of Athlone on the river. Shannon, by the lake. Loch Ree. From here, his boats with soldiers made expeditions to the north of Ireland, to the lake. Loch Nezh. In fact, he kept Ulster, Connaught and Meath under his command.
Battle of Clontarf
The liberation struggle against the foreign yoke in Ireland especially intensified at the beginning of the 11th century, when Brian became the supreme "king" of Munster, and Malachy, the leader of Meath, rose to the north, who defeated the Norman troops at Tara and drove the Normans out of Dublin. In 998 Briand and Malachi divided the supreme power over Ireland: Briand was recognized as the supreme "king" of the southern part, including Dublin, and Malachi - the northern part of Ireland.
In 1002 Malachi, becoming the ruler of Ulster, ceded the power of the Ard-riag of Ireland to Brian. Brian put in a lot of work to somehow establish the economy of Ireland, ruined by robberies and raids. On the river Shannon, he built many fortresses, a large fleet, tried to introduce regular taxation of cattle for general needs, for which he received the nickname Baroime (cattle gatherer). He made an attempt to reduce the number of leaders who had the right to claim the title of riags and ard-riags, which, in his opinion, contributed to the normalization of the situation in the country.
In September 1013, Briand attempted to besiege Dublin, whose ruler rebelled against him, but due to a lack of food, Briand had to retreat. Then the Normans sent their envoys to the Orkney Islands, Norway and Denmark with a request to send reinforcements. They managed to gather significant forces. But in the spring of 1014 Briand reappeared with troops, and on April 23 of this year, a decisive battle took place at Volovye Meadow, near Dublin (now Clontarf). “There has never been a battle like this in Ireland for centuries,” says one Scottish chronicle. The Normans and their allies were completely defeated, the death toll on both sides was estimated at several thousand people. During the battle, Briand, who was 88 years old, died. He himself did not take a direct part in the battle, but led it from a fortified camp. During the battle, one of the leaders of the Vikings, Brodir, seeing that Brian's army was pursuing the fleeing Normans, and a small retinue remained near the king, rushed to him from the forest, “broke through the wall of shields and struck the king with a sword,” says the Icelandic Saga of Nyala ”, containing a description of the Battle of Clontarf. Briand was buried at Armagh; the Irish revered him as a national hero.
The Battle of Clontarf is a significant event in Irish history. She put an end to the Norman raids and liberated the country from foreign yoke. "After the Clontarf defeat," writes Engels, "the predatory raids of the Normans become more rare and less dangerous." In English and Scandinavian bourgeois historiography, the "Norman period" of Irish history is embellished in every possible way. In fact, the Normans in the VIII-X centuries. were at a lower level of social and cultural development than the Irish, their campaigns of conquest caused great damage to Ireland. As the only compensation "for all the devastation they caused," writes Engels, "the Scandinavians left three or four cities and the rudiments of an urban population engaged in trade to the Irish."
Economic development Ireland in the XI-XII centuries. slowed down due to the expansion of the Normans. Unlike neighboring European countries, where during this period there was an intensive process of separating handicrafts from agriculture, on the basis of which commodity production arose and successfully developed, in Ireland a subsistence economy with its inherent patriarchal features was preserved. The peasants were engaged in cattle breeding, the land was cultivated with the same tools that were used at the beginning of our era. The chiefs collected rents and levies from them mainly in kind. As for luxury goods, they were brought by foreign merchants who periodically visited the palaces of the leaders, as well as who accompanied them on campaigns.
Under the Normans, coastal cities were military bases and ports for the export of loot; after the expulsion of the Normans, foreign trade began to develop in them, especially with neighboring England and Spain, associated with the needs of the nobility.
The domination of subsistence farming in Ireland contributed to the conservation of the country's political fragmentation and the autocracy of the leaders. Irish chronicles indicate that after the Battle of Clontarf, the Irish leaders continued to wage civil wars, devastating the country.
1 Marx K. and Engels F. Works, vol. 16, p. 510.
2 See K. Marx and F. Engels Soch., Vol. 32, p. 329.
3 Archive of Marx and Engels, vol. X, p. 101.
4 K. Marx and F. Engels Works, vol. 45, p. 83.
5 Marx K. and Engels F. Works, vol. 16, p. 525.
6 K. Marx and F. Engels Works, vol. 16, p. 521.
7 Ibid.
Druid "s Altar and Chair, Killiney, Co. Dublin, c. 1920
As Ireland lies on the outskirts of the European world, some of the waves that passed through the continent did not reach its distant borders. No fossil remains of species have been found on Irish soil that predate Homo sapiens. On the other hand, the Mediterranean type of Homo sapiens not only gave birth to a highly developed Neolithic culture, but also remained dominant on the island throughout the Bronze Age (c. 1800 BC - c. 350 BC). Whatever additional influences on the composition of this population occurred during this long period, it is unlikely that the conquests of the Celtic-speaking tribes took place earlier than the 4th century. BC. It is unclear whether there was any widespread invasion of the Celtic-Germanic tribes that Julius Caesar encountered on the continent before the Christian era. In any case, it was the Celts (Gaels) who invaded Ireland as conquerors, brought the Gaelic language and culture of the Iron Age. The former population still existed in almost all parts of the island and maintained its structure and customs long after the written history of Ireland began. The vitality of the ancient Irish before the invasion explains the greater proportion of the pre-Celtic population in the total population of modern Ireland than anywhere else in Great Britain, with the exception of Wales.
Giant 's Ring Cromlech, Belfast, 1937
Bregonne laws.
This body of laws and judicial system clearly have a very ancient origin. Some of its central elements, perhaps, belong to the pre-Celtic period, since they are characterized by features that the ancient Celts did not have. The social life of the population, judging by these laws, was already complex and hierarchical. The smallest economic, as well as political and social unit was the clan. All land was in the common possession of the clan, which gave ownership of land plots to those who were a full and free member of the tribal community. The status of those who belonged to the clan, but did not quite belong to the clan, had its own gradations. At the bottom of the hierarchy were vagabonds and slaves. The amount of land allocated to full-fledged members of the clan depended on the importance of the functions they performed. The clan elected a chieftain who was responsible for the distribution and redistribution of land. Over time, the leader, as one would expect, began to consider the land as his property and endowed the members of the clan with only the right to dispose of the land. However, throughout the pagan period, regularly convened gatherings of clans exercised supreme power within the framework of tribal unions. From time to time, the clan's land was redistributed, but if that other plot for a long time remained at the disposal of the family, who ruled from generation to generation, it began to be considered as property, and not just as temporary possession. At the same time, the amount of land indicated the position of the family within the clan, and the amount of cattle belonging to her determined how rich she was. Much of Bregon's laws affect property rights. The transfer of property from one hand to another was hedged with complicated procedures, depending on whether the transfer of land or personal property took place voluntarily or by force of law. These procedures also varied depending on the situation of the persons involved. Before the claimant could take possession of property previously owned by his superior, he had to go through a period of abstinence from food. If during this time the plaintiff died, the defendant could be charged with murder. There was no clear line between civil and criminal law. If it was a crime, the injured party or the victim's immediate family had to ensure that the charges were brought and the punishment itself, but they were assisted in this by all members of the community. The Bregons (judges), who have existed since at least the beginning of the Christian era, played an essential role in the judicial process. Bregon was a professional interpreter of laws and for a fee, albeit not an official one, made decisions in cases that fell under them.
Irish kingdoms.
Political associations broader than clans can also be traced. The first alliance within the whole island was, apparently, the Pentarchy, or five kingdoms (tuat) (traditional "five-fifths of Ireland"), most likely already existed at the dawn of the Christian era. As a result of the constant struggle of various dynasties by 400 AD. seven independent kingdoms arose, which existed, with minor changes, until the end of the Gaelic period in the early 17th century. The most important in the south was the territory ruled by the Kashelov dynasty, and in the north - the territory of the Tara dynasty. Three other states were closely associated with the latter, the kings (riagi) of which came from this dynasty; all together they formed a confederation, the supremacy in which gave the chief king of the four states the title of supreme king (ard-riaga) of all Ireland. It was the combined forces of these kings that attacked the Romans in Britain and the continent in the 4th century; in the course of one of these predatory attacks, St. Patrick, who was destined to convert Ireland to the Christian faith. Nevertheless, in each of the Irish kingdoms, the king's direct authority extended only to members of his own clan; power over subordinate clans was expressed only in the payment of tribute by them.
The emergence of the Irish Church.
At the beginning of the 5th century. most of the population continued to worship the gods of the Druids. There were also a few Christians in the country, and Pope Celestine I sent the Roman Palladius to Ireland in 431 to take care of them as bishop. After the death of the latter the following year, a similar mission was entrusted to St. Patrick, who over the next 30 years converted almost the entire Irish people to Christianity and founded the Church of Ireland with an archbishopric in Armagh. The national church, although it served to further unify the country, developed primarily within the framework of clans and monasteries. Each clan had its own clergy, who lived in a monastery headed by an abbot. Often the direct heir to the clan became an abbot, and many abbots were ordained bishops, which reduced the influence of extra-monastic bishops. Although the Irish Church differed for some period from the Roman in the matter of the day of the celebration of Easter and tonsure, in the 7th century. it nevertheless took the Latin form in the 7th century; in matters of doctrine, there has never been disagreement between the churches. The most remarkable result of the conversion of Ireland to Christianity was the widespread spread of religion and education throughout the country through the activities of the monasteries. Intellectually, the Church of Ireland was replenished with theologians from the continent fleeing barbaric incursions, but key figures in the Christian enlightenment were Irish. Until the end of the 8th century. Ireland was one of the main centers of Christian education. The monastic schools not only contributed to the development of culture in the country and trained students from other countries, but also sent monks on missions to Scotland, England and the continent. Outstanding monks in this respect were Saints Columba and Columban. In 563 St. Columba founded the monastery of Jonah off the coast of Scotland, which became the center of Christianity in northern Britain. Even more important were the deeds of St. Columban, founder of the Luxeuil monastery in Burgundy (590) and the Bobbio monastery in northern Italy (613). At least 60 other monasteries originated from the Luxay monastery. The future priests from Ireland came to these centers, from here over the next 500 years the missionaries went to the countries of Western Europe.
Vikings.
In comparison to the rest of Europe, southern Ireland has lived in peace during the period from the arrival of St. Patrick until the end of the 8th century; however, in the north, there was a constant struggle between the kingdoms and within the kingdoms themselves. Although there was a virtually inviolable line of succession among the high kings, no one was able to establish a single rule over the entire island. Beginning in 795, another factor of discord emerged - the Vikings, from whom Ireland suffered for more than two centuries. By 850, the Danes, as the Irish called the Vikings, had captured Dublin, Waterford and Limerick, which they had turned into centers of trade and strongholds for raids on other parts of the country. A century later, when some of the descendants of the conquerors converted to Christianity and were assimilated by the Irish, the most terrible invasion of the "Danes" fell on the country. The challenge was accepted by Brian Boroime, who ascended in the south and in 1002 became an ard-riag. The Army of the South attacked the Army of the North in Dublin and defeated it at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. Briand himself was killed, but this victory marked the end of the era of Viking raids throughout the British Isles.
In addition, Briand managed to ignite in the Irish, who already possessed a sense of national cultural unity, the desire for political unification. During the one and a half years between his death and the invasion of the Anglo-Norman conquerors (1169), there was a process of liberating the subordinate clans from the power of the old "local" kings (with the exception of Connaught); there was a truly national king - Rory O "Connor, who settled in Dublin. The Irish Church underwent similar processes. The period of Viking conquest led to demoralization in the Irish Church as a result of devastation perpetrated by both the conquerors and local kings. In addition, the bishops in the occupied The Danes of Dublin, Waterford and Limerick considered the church authorities not to be the archbishop of Armagh, but the archbishop of Canterbury.After the founding of the monasteries by new orders from the continent, especially the Cistercians, a real revival of religious life began. the formation of four ecclesiastical metropolises (1152) led to the emergence of a truly strong national church, which included the Gaelic and Norman populations and was independent from any external authority except the papal. and; church reform also led to the revival of science and education.
Henry II.
The Irish have shown the will and ability to reform their church on their own. Nevertheless, in 1155, Pope Adrian IV (Englishman) handed Ireland over to Henry II of England (ruled 1154-1189) under the impression created by Henry that this was necessary to heal the country's ecclesiastical ailments. It is possible that Henry would not have become so interested in Ireland if it had not been for the appeal for help from Dermot McMurrow, the only king of Ireland who refused to obey Rory O "Connor. Henry promised Dermot any help he could arrange in England, and in As a result, Richard de Clare (The Archer) and other Norman barons of the Welsh borderlands supplied him with an army. In two years, 1169-1170, the conquerors conquered the cities of Wexford, Waterford and Dublin and rekindled the flames of tribal strife. caused the hostility of the Irish and the jealousy of Henry, who entered the land of Ireland in 1171. At Cashel he convened a council to reform the church and at the same time declared his rule over Ireland. through their people and, which was an even more revolutionary step, on the right to grant land in opposition to the traditional foundations of the country created a conflict that left its mark on the entire subsequent history of Ireland.
Norman settlements.
While the Norman nobility was engaged in the seizure of estates, often without waiting for royal permission, the British followed them to the eastern regions, especially in Pale (Dublin and its surroundings). The area flourished for a time, however, with fierce resistance from the local population and weakening support from England, it suffered from conflict between Norman barons and Celtic rulers. Outside of Peyle's borders and the Norman nobility-dominated area, real power remained in the hands of the dynasties that ruled the ancient Irish kingdom. As in ancient times, these rulers competed with each other - which was only beneficial to the conquerors. But gradually new leaders emerged, such as O "Neils of Ulster, who rallied the Irish and called Edward the Bruce, brother of the Scottish king, to the Irish throne. Bruce's invasion (1315-1318) brought the country neither unification nor freedom, but soon feudal lords began a civil war.The De Burghi, Ulster Earls, clashed with the Fitzgeralds, and this led to a weakening of the British forces and contributed to the revival of Ireland.In addition, several Norman settlements outside Peyle's borders were Gaelized and did not recognize English rule. Under these conditions, the power of political and ecclesiastical The rulers of the English crown in Dublin weakened, and even the safety of Pale became dependent on the payment of tribute to the Irish leaders.The Irish Parliament, composed of colonists and first convened in 1295, tried to soften the fall.In 1367 a statute was passed in Kilkenny, the purpose of which was complete separation colonists from the Celtic population. Henceforth, the British had to live in their area (Peile), separate from the native Irish. However, this did not solve the problem. The British government, preoccupied with its own problems, ignored the colonists, who gradually began to take an increasingly independent position. In the 15th century. they even tried to declare independence from England. In addition, there were years of famine in Ireland, the Anglo-Irish wars took place, and absenteeism spread. By the time the Tudors ascended the English throne (1485), Ireland was in a deplorable state.
Ireland under the Tudors.
When Henry Tudor became king of England, the main figure in the Irish political scene was the Yorkist Gerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, who apparently had the intention to rule Ireland by uniting the Irish and the colonists on the basis of their common interests. At first, Henry VII, far from confident in the strength of his position on the throne, took no action against Ireland, but when Kildare supported Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, York claimants to the throne, the king retaliated. He sent an army to Ireland under the command of Sir Edward Poinings. Kildare was arrested, and in 1495 Parliament was convened in Drogheda, which announced that henceforth all the state institutions of Ireland would be formed by the will of the king. An act was passed (the Poinings Act), according to which parliament could only be convened with the consent of the crown; no bill could be considered without royal permission; Ireland was subject to the entire body of English laws. Initially, this statute did not matter much, as it was directed specifically against Kildare, who was soon allowed to return to Ireland as Viceroy. However, later, when English laws were introduced throughout Ireland, the restriction on the Irish parliament met with widespread opposition. The Kildare reign ended with the reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547), who preferred to appoint the English as governors of Ireland rather than the local Anglo-Irish nobility. But the spirit of Irish resistance continued, and Henry's attempts to separate the Church of Ireland from the papal authority only increased the discontent. In these circumstances, he preferred a policy of reconciliation. Recognizing the ownership of the clan representatives and granting some of them land previously confiscated from the monasteries, he ensured the support of the clans for their power. With this support, Henry set out to spread the Anglican Reformation throughout Ireland. Under Queen Mary (ruled 1553-1558), as in England, there was a return to the recognition of the spiritual supremacy of Rome in Ireland, but the confiscated abbeys were not returned. During her reign, the practice of English plantations began to spread, undermining the economy of the local population and replacing the Irish with settlers from Britain who worked on lands granted to landlords, confiscated from the Irish nobility.
When Queen Elizabeth took the throne (ruled 1558–1603), she faced two major Irish problems. The first was that the Reformation in Ireland did not work out. Catholicism became part of the Irish national identity, and the Irish did not want to carry out any church reforms. In addition, there was growing opposition to British rule, which had become especially aggressive in recent years. One of the most rebellious provinces was Ulster, where Shan O "Neil (whose father obeyed Henry) refused to recognize his lands as the possession of the crown. Shan achieved success in the struggle against the British, however, trying to establish control over all of Ulster, he met his death (1567) from the hands of the Scottish McDonnells, who settled around Londonderry. Elizabeth decided that the time was right for the British to settle in Ulster, and the entire area was confiscated in favor of the crown. This caused a Catholic uprising in Munster, supported by Spain. When it was suppressed , the first English colonists came to the lands of the province; local population to stay, had to pay rent to crown representatives. Elizabeth tried to colonize Ulster again, but resistance from Gug O "Neil, Earl of Tyrone, prevented her plans. After her favorite Essex failed to suppress the rebellion, his successor Lord Mountjoy, rooting out opposition, paved the way for the rule of English laws and institutions authorities throughout the island.
Ireland under the Stuarts
James I (reigned 1603–1625) continued the Elizabethan policy of planting and Anglicanism. Schools were opened where only Protestants taught, and Catholics were forced to close their schools. The old divisions of Irish, Anglo-Irish and English have given way to the more important division of Catholics and Protestants. By renouncing his religion, even a member of the indigenous Irish clan could receive the privileges due to ruling class... Nevertheless, Jacob's attempts to oust the Roman Catholic priests from the country were unsuccessful, and most of the Irish remained faithful to their religion. The natural leaders of the people, however, emigrated, and this practice continued for nearly two centuries. In 1607 the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel fled to the continent, so it was decided to settle their lands in Ulster (except for the counties of Antrim, Down and Monaghan) by the British and Scots (who lived in the Lowlands of Scotland). The rights of the Irish who already lived on this land were ignored.
Antrim and Down already had a significant Scottish population, and this naturally caused an influx of their Scottish relatives. Meanwhile, Jacob could not decide whether or not to start the persecution of Irish Catholics. This gave them in fact a greater degree of freedom, their influence and numbers continued to grow. In 1633 Charles I (ruled 1625-1649) made Sir Thomas Wentworth (later Earl of Strafford) viceroy, hoping to restore order in the country and turn it into a source of support for Charles in the event of a conflict with the English parliament. In this he did not succeed. The Irish did not like Charles' autocratic regime, and he himself did not intend to stop the ongoing confiscations of Irish lands. As a result, the Irish rebelled, led by Rory O "Mor and Phelim O" Neil. They were soon joined by the English Catholics from Pale, who were outraged by the Irish government's pro-Protestant policies. The General Association of Catholic Confederates, formed at the same time, won a number of victories over the troops of Charles. The Duke of Ormond, Wentworth's successor, fearing a complete victory for the Confederates, in 1647 handed over power to representatives of parliament.
Cromwellian period.
After the capture of Charles I by the Puritan army of Oliver Cromwell, the attitude of the Irish towards Charles changed dramatically. Charles was preferred over the Puritan parliament. On September 29, 1648, Ormond landed at Cork and by January 1649 had reached an agreement with the Confederates, who were to supply troops in exchange for the right of the Irish to freely practice their religion. Charles' execution (January 1649) strengthened Ormond's position in Ireland. However, despite the might of his army, he was defeated by parliamentary forces. On August 12, 1649, Cromwell landed with his army to force the Irish to submit. He staged a massacre at Droghed and Wexford, which not only forced the Irish into submission, but also engendered the undying hatred of the Irish people for Cromwell. Abandoned by the Royalist leaders, the Irish surrendered. About 34 thousand of them left the country and became mercenaries in the armies of other countries. Parliament confiscated nearly all Catholic estates (except those in Connacht) and began re-settling Ireland, mostly from retired soldiers. This led to great misfortunes. Many Irish were driven from the land, many were sent to the West Indies, where they fell into actual slavery. At the same time, the Irish Parliament was temporarily incorporated into the English Parliament (1653). Peace was maintained until the death of Cromwell.
Restoration.
Ireland's main problem during the Restoration (1660) was land ownership. Deprived of their property, the Irish returned to the country to get back their property, but the new owners did not want to give it up. The Duke of Ormond tried to find compromise solutions, but found an adversary in the person of Talbot, Earl of Tirconnel, who demanded the return of all the lands to their original owners. Although Charles II (reigned 1660-1685) would undoubtedly have supported this demand, he was powerless to do anything with a parliament in favor of the Protestants. James II (ruled 1685-1688), himself a Catholic, was ready for decisive action. He gave Tirconnel a free hand, but he overstepped the boundaries of reason. The violence that was being repaired by them, together with the return of Catholic Irish soldiers to England, raised a wave of opposition among Protestants. This prepared the way for the overthrow of Jacob and the coming to power of William III of Orange. Ulster rose in mutiny against Jacob, who landed in Ireland shortly afterwards to lead the resistance to William (reigned from 1689 to 1702). Unsuccessful attempts to take Londonderry and other Protestant cities in the north weakened Jacob's position; to this was added the repeal by the Irish Parliament of the Cromwellian Irish Disposition Act. Finally, the British forces under the command of William of Orange met with the Irish army on the Boyne, where Jacob's forces were completely defeated (11 July 1690). Thereafter, Jacob fled to the continent, and the Stuart's power in Ireland ended.
The rise of nationalism.
Soon after Jacob's flight, the Irish troops laid down their arms at Sarsfield. The Treaty of Limerick of 1691 guaranteed certain rights to Catholics, but this met with opposition from the Protestant Irish Parliament, which continued to insist on maintaining Protestant rule. In Ireland, only the white clergy were allowed to remain, the rest of the clergy were ordered to leave the country. Catholics were forbidden to hold any public office, and in 1727 they were deprived of voting rights. Even more repressive were the laws forbidding Catholics to give their children a Catholic education, to study professional activities(primarily trade) in a number of areas and own land. Ireland, in which Catholics and to some extent dissenters were persecuted by minority members of the Episcopal Church, increasingly fell under British rule. In 1719 the British Parliament passed an act transferring the rights of appeal from the Irish House of Lords to the British House of Lords. In 1751, the Irish House of Commons was denied the right to dispose of tax revenues. In addition, every effort was made to prevent competition from Irish entrepreneurs. In 1666, the export of livestock to England was prohibited, now the same law has been passed in relation to food products and clothing. Ireland was assigned the role of an economically dependent colony. The reaction to these restrictions was the organization of the nationalist Protestant Party in the 1750s and 1760s. In 1768, with British consent, she secured the eight-year Irish Parliament Act. Prior to that, the parliament worked as long as the monarch's life lasted. The American Revolution spurred further reforms. First, the British government had to send troops stationed in Ireland to America, leaving the question of the country's defense in the care of the Irish themselves. The latter solved it by increasing the number of volunteers who could easily be used for the purposes of the nationalist movement. Secondly, a boycott of British goods was declared in order to force the British government to lift trade restrictions. The result of these two factors was not only the abolition of navigational acts in 1779-1780; in 1782 the Irish parliament received full legislative independence. During these years, the parliament adopted acts that soften the position of Catholics. The Protestant Party split over this issue, and the first mitigation against Irish Catholics in 1778 came under pressure from the British government, which passed the English Catholics leniency earlier that year. In 1793, when Britain was at war with France, it again exerted pressure to give Irish Catholics the right to vote for which they had long fought.
Despite these successes, Irish Catholics did not yet have full freedom; they were not allowed to hold seats in the Irish parliament. Dissatisfaction with this circumstance led some Catholics to join the United Irish, organized in 1791 by Theobald Wolf Ton and other dissenters in Belfast. This society, inspired by the French Revolution, set out to achieve equality for all Irish people and full independence for the country. Most Catholics, however, were against the revolt, and many Ulster Protestants opposed further concessions to the Catholics. Thus, when the French sent reinforcements to Wolf Ton and other rebels in 1798, Ireland was hopelessly divided by civil strife. The British easily and very brutally suppressed the rebellion.
Union with Great Britain.
John Fitzgibbon, the Irish Lord Chancellor, put forward the idea of a complete union of Ireland with Great Britain, including the abolition of the Irish parliament. His propaganda was so compelling that William Pitt, the British prime minister, took up the idea; Irish legislators were persuaded by bribery and promises to petition the British Parliament for union. Parliament immediately agreed, and in 1801 the union took effect. The Irish were now to send 4 clergy and 28 secular peers to the English parliament, as well as 100 Irish members of the House of Commons.
The next few years were not marked by events. Thanks to the war with France and high prices landlords and traders flourished for food, but peace brought its own troubles. Pitt's promises of political freedom for Catholics were not fulfilled. Therefore, in 1823 the Catholic Association was formed with the aim of emancipating Catholics. Despite strong opposition from Protestants, Catholic Daniel O "Connell was elected to parliament in 1828. He refused to take his seat until the" anti-Catholic "oath was revoked. “Connel was not allowed to take a seat in parliament, and the House of Commons passed the Catholics Emancipation Act of 1829, which allowed Catholics to hold most public office. However, O "Connell was not satisfied with this. He demanded either a satisfactory government in Ireland itself, or the independence of his country. When the first condition was rejected, he renewed agitation for breaking the union and organized the Association of Reapers in 1840. In this he was supported by the Young Ireland movement ", But soon lost his support, because he was not ready to use violence." Young Ireland "seized the initiative, and, following the example of the revolutionary movements on the continent, the agitation soon escalated into a rebellion in 1848. Not receiving popular support, the rebellion ended in failure. Between 1845 and 1847 a bad potato crop was struck, which killed about a million peasants and ruined many landlords. Famine, land sales by landlords, and higher rents by land speculators led to the emigration of another million people. A government then obsessed with laissez- faire, did not find a solution to the problem of hunger and was soon accused of criminal indifference shii and even genocide. After the defeat of Young Ireland, other secret revolutionary movements arose. One was called the Brotherhood of the Fenians and had its headquarters in the United States, from where it organized attacks on Canada and agitated the population for uprisings within Ireland itself. Another movement was called Clann-na-Gael, it also originated from the United States and provided financial support to all anti-British organizations until the early 20th century. A similar organization in Ireland was the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1855, which organized the Irish uprising of 1916 and existed until Ireland gained independence in 1922.
Home Rule.
The work of the Fenians was fruitful in the sense that it convinced Prime Minister Gladstone of the need to fix the state of affairs in Ireland. The first step of Gladstone was the separation of the Irish (Episcopal) Church from the state in 1869. The Churches left most of its possessions, the rest was transferred educational institutions... The following year, Gladstone proposed the first of his land laws, protecting the tenant from eviction and allowing him to buy land. Then the Irish themselves turned to parliamentary action to rectify the state of affairs in their country. Revolutionary agitation attracted the population in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but did not enjoy support to the extent that parliamentary activities in favor of Catholic emancipation and self-government were supported by O "Connell and other leaders of the Home Rule movement - Isaac Butt, Charles Stuart Parnell and John Redmond In 1870, Butt, a conservative Protestant, formed the Association for Local Government, whose purpose was to promote self-government in Ireland and nominate candidates for parliament. This organization was transformed into the Home Rule League in 1873, and in 1877, Charles became its de facto leader. Stuart Parnell (he officially became chairman in 1881). Parnell was also chairman of the Land League, which fought against the eviction of peasants. In 1881 Gladstone proposed another land law containing provisions for a fair rent, the inalienable right to property and free trade, and the land court to enforce the law itself. He hoped that in this way the problem of violence in Ireland would be solved, but his hopes did not come true, because soon after that Frederick Cavendish, the Minister for Irish Affairs, was assassinated in Phoenix Park in Dublin. As a result of this violent act, the reconciliation process was temporarily suspended.
Parnell and his Irish colleagues pursued obstructionist policies to force Parliament to pass the Home Rule Act, but the issue did not budge until the general election of 1885, when 86 people were elected to support the Home Rule Act, and the Irish Party, as it was called, began to take advantage of the differences of conservatives and liberals in the House of Commons. In 1886, the Irish supported the Liberal Gladstone in the nomination for the post of prime minister. Gladstone proposed legislation to provide some degree of self-government for Ireland. In April 1886 he proposed his first bill granting Ireland its own parliament and executive branch to deal with local problems. In his concept, the United Kingdom continued to legislate on issues that would affect the whole country as a whole, such as defense, foreign policy and colony management. Financial control was also retained by the United Kingdom. The bill was not adopted due to the position of a large number of liberal unionists, northern Protestants and a group of politicians in his own party, who strongly opposed such an act because he threatened to break the union. Gladstone was forced to resign, but after a period of Conservative rule, he again took over as prime minister (1892). The following year, he proposed his second Home Rule Bill, which was very similar to the first. This bill received the approval of the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords, which was dominated by the Conservatives.
The Conservatives, during their ten-year reign (1895-1905), sought to "kill Home Rule with tenderness," proposing a series of reforms. The Irish County Councils Act 1898 transferred the management of local affairs to locally elected governments (previously, appointments were made by the Irish government). Even more important was the Land Purchase Act of 1903, according to which tenants could purchase their properties from landlords on preferential terms. However, the Irish nationalists continued their activities. The Irish Party continued to have over 80 representatives in parliament, and other organizations were founded to pursue the independence of Ireland. One of them was the Gaelic League (1893) by Dr. Douglas Hyde, which aimed to revive the Irish national identity through the revival of the ancient Irish language. Another organization was Sinn Fein (Only ourselves), founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, who proposed to organize an Irish government completely independent of the British Parliament.
After the general election of 1910, the Irish Party, led by John Redmond, was once again able to play on the contradictions between liberals and conservatives in the House of Commons. The Irish supported the Liberals, and the government proposed a Third Bill of Home Rule in 1912. By then, the House of Lords' veto power had been limited. The bill, rejected three times by the House of Lords in three of its sessions, was now considered law. For several years, the Protestant unionists of Ulster, the heart of Irish industry, have been preparing to resist Home Rule. They organized the paramilitary organization Ulster Volunteers, smuggled weapons into the country and prepared to start a civil war. Nationalists in the south also created a militia called the Irish National Volunteers. The civil war did not start only because the First World War... John Redmond, the leader of the nationalists, agreed to postpone the introduction of Home Rule until the end of the war, but some of the volunteers (Irish volunteers) did not agree with this decision.
Irish uprising of 1916.
Within the Irish Volunteer movement, a group called the Irish Republican Brotherhood intended to take advantage of Britain's wartime weakness to organize an uprising in Ireland with German help. The mutiny took place on Easter Monday, April 24, 1916. About 1,500 volunteers led by Patrick Pearce were supported by 200 members of the union militia, the Irish Civil Army, led by James Connolly. They seized several buildings in downtown Dublin and issued the Proclamation of the Establishment of the Republic of Ireland. Germany was unable to support them and the insurrection was suppressed in six days with the help of British naval artillery. 15 leaders of the uprising were executed by a military tribunal, and the 16th nationalist leader, Sir Roger Casement, who did not participate in the uprising, was later sentenced to death for treason, expressed in the organization of German military assistance. The US-born Irish leader Eamon de Valera was imprisoned along with other rioters until 1917. The rebels joined the ranks of Sine Fein, and after De Valera's release he became the head of both the military and political wings of the republican movement.
The Irish party lost its supporters, and in the general election in the United Kingdom in November 1918, Sinn Fein won 73 seats in parliament (the Irish party won only 7 seats). The unionists won 25 seats. Sinn Fein refused to attend parliamentary meetings, and used the election as a mandate to form an Irish parliament in Dublin in January 1919. Parliament approved the 1916 Proclamation of Independence. Freed after a second imprisonment in England, De Valera was elected President of the Irish Independent Republic. However, at the very time when the first sessions of the new parliament were held, the first shots were fired in the war of independence. The confrontation between the Irish and the British continued until the conclusion of peace in July 1921.
Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921.
During the War of Independence in 1920, the British tried to resolve the Irish problem by dividing Ireland into 6 counties with a predominance of Protestant unionists in Northern Ireland and 26 Catholic nationalist predominant counties in Southern Ireland (Irish Government Act 1920). Each of the two parts was supposed to control its internal affairs within the United Kingdom, in addition, an all-Irish coordinating body was agreed - the Irish Council. The Northern Parliament was formed in June 1921, but Shin Fein refused to participate in the Southern Parliament, which met twice, but then ceased to exist. After getting Northern Ireland off the Irish agenda, Britain agreed to negotiate independence for the rest of the country. After preliminary talks with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, De Valera decided to break off the dialogue. Instead, he sent a delegation to London led by two of his assistants, Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith. Fearing a declaration of war by the British and wishing to achieve an agreement that would allow Ireland to move towards full independence, the delegation signed the Anglo-Irish treaty on December 6, 1921. The treaty recognized the division of Ireland. It was proposed to form the Irish Free State, which would have a status similar to that of Canada as a dominion within the British empire... In Dublin, this treaty caused a split in the government, and the treaty was approved by four votes to three. De Valera voted against the treaty. Parliament also split, and the treaty was approved by 64 votes to 57. De Valera resigned and Michael Collins formed an interim government to prepare the new state. Collins managed to prevent a new split, but only before the adoption by Britain of the constitution of the Irish Free State in June 1922. The constitution confirmed the terms of the treaty. In a general election to parliament in the same month, the position of those who were in favor of the treaty was approved, but a few days later, the first shots were fired at civil war between supporters and opponents of a treaty that lasted until May 1923. The Irish Free State, the predecessor of the modern Irish Republic, was formally proclaimed on December 6, 1922.
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Wolves have lived on Irish land long before humans arrived. Experts suggest that wolves came to Ireland on ice from Europe about 30 thousand years ago. It happened when Ireland looked more like Siberia than a "green island". Since then, they lived on the island in abundance until the systematic extermination of these dangerous animals began. AND...
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Constance Georgina Markevich, née Gore-Bot, Irish suffragist, political activist of the Sinn Féin and Fianna Fáil parties, revolutionary, socialist and nationalist. Constance took part in the struggle for the independence of Ireland, including the Easter Uprising of 1916, where Markevich received the rank of officer, which gave her the opportunity to influence decisions and, most importantly, the right to bear arms. During...
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We invite you to plunge into the era of the 30s of the last century in Ireland. We can do this thanks to the beautiful photos from the American travel photographer Branson Deco. Between 1932 and 1935, Branson traveled and photographed Ireland and its people. These rare photographs have been colorized and are now housed at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Ireland 1930s. Color photos by Branson Deco ...
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