1. Natural resources- these are components of nature used to create material goods, maintain the conditions for the existence of mankind. Rather, these are the means of existence of people, not created by their labor, which are in nature. They can be real and potential. Natural resources used in human production at a certain stage of development productive forces, belong to real, and not involved in production because of the harsh climatic conditions, lack of technical equipment and for other reasons - to potential. Some of them serve as direct conditions for human existence (for example, the air and water habitat, as well as recreational, health-improving, cognitive and informational and other resources). Others are the source and factor in the development of production - this is nature as a source of raw materials directly consumed by material production, and the spatial basis for the distribution of productive forces.

Natural resources are divided into groups according to the nature of their use (industrial, health care, aesthetic, cognitive and informational, recreational, etc.), according to their belonging to certain components of nature (soil and land, water, biological - resources of flora and fauna, mineral, atmospheric resources , energy), according to the degree of recoverability (exhaustible and inexhaustible). Exhaustible natural resources are subdivided into renewable, relatively renewable and non-renewable.

Renewable resources are the resources of the biosphere, which, as they are used, can be reproduced (plant and animal world) due to established natural processes. The rate of their expenditure must necessarily be in line with the rate of recovery. These resources require special protection Main features renewable resources: the ability, under certain conditions, to reproduce, to self-regulate its quantity and quality; ability as a result of natural processes and economic activity a person to move from one quality to another; dependence and conditionality of functional and qualitative characteristics on the direction and degree of impact on them; interdependence and interdependence of the state of some resources on the quality and quantity of others.

TO relatively renewable resources include soils, which, as a rule, are formed very slowly (1 cm of the humus horizon is formed in about 200 ... 500 years, and it takes 2 ... 10 thousand years to restore the arable layer destroyed by erosion).

Nonrenewable(irreplaceable) - those natural resources that are not recoverable or recover much more slowly compared to use in certain periods (for example, coal, oil, gas and other minerals), as well as habitat. Mineral resources must be used economically and rationally.

Inexhaustible natural resources - space, climatic and water (on a global scale). Space resources - space radiation, solar radiation, the energy of the ebb and flow of the sea. Climatic resources - heat, moisture of the atmosphere, air, wind energy. Water resources are the reserves of water on our planet.

2. Soil and land resources. Soils are an irreplaceable natural resource, the basis of material wealth. The development and productivity of plants, which are the primary source of food and bioenergetic material for all other inhabitants of the Earth, depend on them. Soils serve as the basis of all production, and in agriculture - the main means of production. The functioning of all industries depends on the correct use of soil. National economy, the welfare of society. The share of land on our planet is about 149 million km 2. The agricultural area is 19.4 million km 2.

It is believed that soil and land resources are quite rich. In fact, a significant part of them (about 92 million km 2) are unsuitable for agriculture, as they are located in a cold climate, represented by swamps, forests, shrubs, and poor pastures. About 40% of Russia's territory is located in permafrost regions (arctic, tundra soils). The best lands are almost completely developed or alienated for settlements, industrial enterprises, airfields, roads, pipelines, communication lines, etc. There are land reserves for development, but their quality is low. The cultivated area is 10.4% of the total land area (about 3% of the Earth's surface). In per capita terms, the planet has an average of 0.3 hectares of arable land, and this area is declining every year. The need for land for non-agricultural purposes, for the disposal of industrial and agricultural waste, is constantly growing. Direct destruction of soils occurs as a result of underground and opencast mining of minerals. Soils are destroyed by water and wind erosion. Losses of land are also increasing due to secondary salinization, alkalinization, waterlogging, soil pollution with heavy metals, radionuclides, pesticides and other chemicals. Anxiety is caused by the depletion of soils, the decline in their fertility due to improper, unbalanced use. All these soils require complex reclamation work: drainage, irrigation, desalinization, liming, gypsum, a complex of anti-erosion measures.

3. Water resources. Water is the most important irreplaceable natural resource and one of the main components of life. Human economic activity is impossible without water. Water is used in many industrial processes, serves as a source of cheap energy, goods are transported by water, it is necessary in everyday life. Water resources are the total supply of water in the oceans, seas, rivers, glaciers, as well as the supply of groundwater, soil and atmospheric moisture. From the point of view of material production, water resources are those reserves of water that are technically available and which are economically feasible to use to meet the needs of society.

Water reserves on Earth are 1.5 billion km 3 (on land about 0.07%), fresh water reserves are only 28.3 million km 3, i.e. approximately 2% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. The largest reserves of water are concentrated in natural ice, less (0.016% of the total volume of the hydrosphere) falls on fresh waters of rivers and lakes. Water is in motion, constantly consumed and restored.

Depending on the nature of the use of water resources, water users are distinguished (fisheries, water transport, timber rafting, hydropower and other sectors of the economy that use but do not consume water) and water consumers (industry, agriculture and utilities).

In Russia as a whole, the consumption of fresh water (from natural sources) is 6% of renewable resources, and in a number of regions with highly developed industries - up to 40%. Agriculture, industry and utilities are the main consumers of fresh water. Moscow consumes up to 5.6.5.9 million m 3 of drinking water per day. The daily consumption is about 650 liters per person, while in Paris - 290, and in Tokyo - 220 liters. More than 50 countries are experiencing an acute shortage of fresh water. For example, Algeria, Kuwait, United United Arab Emirates, Singapore live on imported water. There is not enough fresh water in Paris, London, Tokyo, New York.

The main reasons for the shortage of fresh water are population growth; expansion of water-intensive industries; reduction of river flow due to drainage of swamps, deforestation, plowing of meadows, etc. pollution of water bodies with livestock wastewater, wastewater from industrial and municipal enterprises, with which heavy metals, radionuclides, petroleum oils, detergents (synthetic surfactants), pesticides, and various microorganisms are supplied.

To save fresh water, it is advisable to switch to circulating and re-sequential water supply, to reduce the water intensity of production, to use air or air-water cooling in technological processes chemical industry.

4. Biological resources. Biological resources include flora and fauna. The existence of humans, animals and microorganisms is impossible without vegetation. In the process of photosynthesis, green plants synthesize organic matter, purify the air from excess carbon dioxide and enrich the atmosphere with oxygen. Plants provide primary production and oxygen, therefore, are the primary source of life on Earth. Plants are a source of food for humans and animal feed, raw materials for the manufacture of clothing, medicines, building materials. They are involved in the formation of some minerals (peat, coal, oil, etc.) and soils. Vegetation serves as a regulator of the composition of the atmosphere, has a special water-protective and soil-protective value, it is necessary for medical and health-improving purposes.

As a result of human economic activity, the living conditions of plants deteriorate (salinization, acidification, alkalinization, waterlogging of soils, pollution of lands with harmful chemicals, the introduction of pathogens and pests, etc.), which often leads to a weakening of their ability to self-repair, and sometimes to the disappearance of certain species. Thus, about 200 species of vascular plants need protection. The export from Russia of certain species of plants listed in the Red Book is prohibited.

The fauna serves as a source for obtaining food products, fur, industrial and medicinal raw materials, and is also necessary for solving scientific, scientific and educational, educational, recreational and aesthetic problems. Due to the plowing of meadows, deforestation, chemicalization of agriculture, urbanization, many species of animals (130 species of birds and mammals) have disappeared.

5. Mineral (geological resources). Russia is rich in mineral resources. These include metallic and non-metallic ores, nonmetallic minerals, oil, natural gas, coal, shale, peat. Separate resources are needed for human life (table salt).

During underground mining, the losses of potash salts and condensate, oil shale, iron and copper ores are high, valuable components of ores go to the dumps. Only 3.4% (of the total yield) of mining waste industrial production used for the manufacture of building materials. Losses of minerals are great (one third of tin, a quarter of iron, zinc, tungsten, etc.) during the enrichment of mineral raw materials.

Stocks of many mineral resources are very limited, especially fuels and metals, so they should be protected. Certain types of raw materials can be replaced with synthetic materials, one should switch to biological resources, and more widely use the mineral wealth of the oceans and seas.

6. Energy resources. This group includes the resources involved in the constant circulation and flow of energy (energy of the ebb and flow, solar and space, geothermal, i.e. energy of the depths of the Earth, gravitational, bioenergy, atmospheric electricity, energy of atomic decay), deposited energy (oil, natural gas, coal, shale, peat), artificially activated energy sources (nuclear energy and thermal energy). Non-renewable energy resources include gas, oil, coal, shale, peat, hydrogen, helium, lithium, nuclear fuel; to renewable - the energy of the processes of photosynthesis, the direct use of sunlight, hydropower, the energy of the ebb and flow, wind, thermal, geothermal. The main sources of energy are coal, oil, natural gas, hydropower and nuclear power. The use of solar radiation, geothermal energy, energy of ebb and flow, wind is very promising.



9. Natural resources and their classification. 3
26. Raw materials, their economic and complex use. 4
Non-renewable resources .. 4
Renewable resources .. 4
41. Rational use and protection of water resources in agriculture 4
53. The legal aspect of the protection of subsoil. 4
63. Protection of endangered and rare species of animals. Red Data Book of Ukraine ………………………………………………………………………………… 4
76. Sovereign management of nature management and environmental protection ……… 4
List of used literature .. 4

9. Natural resources and their classification

Natural resources (natural resources) - elements of nature, part of the whole set natural conditions and the most important components of the natural environment that are used (or can be used) at a given level of development of productive forces to meet the various needs of society and social production.
Natural resources are the main object of nature management, during which they are exploited and further processed. The main types of natural resources - solar energy, internal heat, water, land and mineral resources - are the means of labor. Plant resources, fauna, drinking water, wild plants - are commodities.
Due to the huge volume of natural substances and energy used, the problem of providing mankind with natural resources is global. To prevent the depletion of natural resources, it is necessary to rational and comprehensive use of natural resources, to search for new sources of raw materials, fuel and energy.
The classification of natural resources is understood as the division of the totality of objects, objects and phenomena of the natural environment into groups according to functionally significant characteristics. Taking into account the natural origin of resources, as well as their enormous economic importance, the following classifications of natural resources have been developed.
1. Natural (genetic) classification - classification of natural resources by natural groups: mineral (minerals), water, land (including soil), plant, (including forest), fauna, climatic, resources energy of natural processes (solar radiation, internal heat of the Earth, wind energy, etc.). The resources of flora and fauna are often grouped under the concept of biological resources.
2. The ecological classification of natural resources is based on the signs of depletion and renewal of resource reserves. The concept of exhaustion is used when taking into account the reserves of natural resources and the volumes of their possible economic withdrawal. Resources are allocated on this basis:
o inexhaustible - the use of which by a person does not lead to an apparent depletion of their reserves now or in the foreseeable future (solar energy, internal heat, energy of water, air);
o harvested non-renewable - the continuous use of which can reduce them to a level at which further exploitation becomes economically impractical, while they are incapable of self-healing in terms commensurate with the terms of consumption (for example, mineral resources);
o drawable renewable - resources that are characterized by the ability to restore (through reproduction or other natural cycles), for example, flora, fauna, water resources. In this subgroup, resources are allocated with extremely slow rates of renewal (fertile land, forest high quality wood).
3. Economic, when natural resources are classified into different groups in terms of the possibilities of economic use:
o according to the technical possibilities of exploitation, natural resources are allocated: real - used at a given level of development of productive forces; potential - established on the basis of theoretical calculations and preliminary work and including, in addition to precisely established technically available reserves, also the part that cannot currently be mastered according to technical capabilities;
o according to the economic feasibility of replacement, distinguish between replaceable and irreplaceable resources. For example, fuel and energy resources are referred to as replaceable (they can be replaced by other energy sources). The indispensable resources include atmospheric air resources, fresh water, etc.
o An important role in the development of the economy is played by the degree of knowledge of natural resources: the structure of the soil, the amount and structure of minerals, wood reserves and its annual growth, etc. Among natural resources, mineral raw materials play a special role in the life of society, and the degree of provision of natural resources reflects the economic level the state. Depending on geological knowledge mineral resources are subdivided into the following categories: A - reserves, explored and studied with the utmost detail, exact boundaries of occurrence, and which can be transferred to exploitation. B - reserves, explored and studied in detail, ensuring the identification of the main conditions of occurrence, without an accurate display of the spatial position of the field. C1 - reserves, explored and studied in detail, providing clarification in general terms of the conditions of occurrence. C2 - reserves, explored, studied and estimated in advance by single samples and samples.
Besides :
According to their economic value, minerals are divided into balance sheets, the exploitation of which is advisable in this moment, and off-balance ones, the operation of which is impractical due to the low content of the useful substance, the great depth of occurrence, the peculiarities of the working conditions, etc., but which in the future can be developed.
· Among the classifications of natural resources, reflecting their economic significance and economic role, the classification according to the direction and types of economic use is especially often used. The main criterion for subdividing resources in it is their assignment to different sectors of material production or non-production sphere. On this basis, natural resources are divided into resources of industrial and agricultural production.
o The Industrial Resource Group includes all types of natural raw materials used by industry. Due to the diversified nature of industrial production, the types of natural resources are differentiated as follows:
§ Energy resources, which include various types of resources used at the present stage for energy production:
§ combustible minerals (oil, gas, coal, bituminous shale, etc.)
§ hydropower resources (river water energy, tidal energy, etc.);
§ sources of bioenergy (fuel wood, biogas from agricultural waste.);
§ sources of nuclear energy (uranium and radioactive elements).
§ Non-energy resources representing raw materials for various industries or participating in production according to its technical features:
§ minerals that do not belong to the group of caustobiolites (ore and non-metallic);
§ water used for industrial production;
§ land occupied by industrial facilities and infrastructure;
§ forest resources of industrial importance;
§ biological resources of industrial importance.
o Resources of agricultural production combine those types of resources that are involved in the creation of agricultural products:
§ aggro climatic resources heat and moisture necessary for the production of cultivated plants and grazing;
§ soil and land - the earth and its upper layer - the soil, which has a unique property to produce biomass;
§ plant biological resources - food resources;
§ water resources - water used for irrigation, etc.
The resources of the non-production sphere (non-production consumption - direct or indirect) include resources taken from the natural environment (wild animals representing the objects of commercial hunting, medicinal raw materials of natural origin), as well as resources of the recreational economy, protected areas, etc.
The combination of natural and economic classifications makes it possible to identify the possibility of multidirectional use of various natural groups resources, as well as their replaceability, draw conclusions about the tasks of rational use and protection of certain species. According to the relationship of uses, there is the following classification:
o resources of unambiguous use;
o resources for multipurpose use, incl. interrelated (integrated) use (water resources), mutually exclusive (competing) use (land resources).
Other groups of natural resources can also be identified. For example, sources of homogeneous resources (mineral deposits, land, timber resources, etc.) are subdivided according to the amount of reserves and economic significance. Conditionally distinguish:
The largest (of national importance),
Large (interdistrict and regional significance),
· Small (local).
Private classifications of natural resources are also being developed, reflecting the specifics of their natural properties and areas of economic use. An example of this type is various amelioration classifications, groups of rivers according to the degree of flow regulation, etc. The geological and economic classification of minerals according to the main directions of their use in industry is widely used:
· Fuel and energy raw materials (oil, gas, coal, uranium, etc.);
· Ferrous, alloying and refractory metals (ores of iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, etc.);
Noble metals (gold, silver, platinoids),
· Chemical and agronomic raw materials (potassium salts, phosphorites, apatites, etc.);
· Technical raw materials (diamonds, asbestos, graphite, etc.).
In market conditions of the economy, the classification of natural resources is of practical interest, taking into account, in particular, the nature of trade in natural raw materials. For example, you can highlight:
Resources having strategic importance trade in which should be limited, since it leads to the undermining of the defense power of the state (uranium ore and other radioactive substances);
· Resources of wide export value and providing the main inflow of foreign exchange earnings (oil, diamonds, gold, etc.);
Resources of the domestic market, which, as a rule, are ubiquitous, for example, mineral raw materials, etc.
Separate structural schemes for the classification of natural resources are shown in Fig. 1,2 and 3.
Figure 1. Classification of natural resources by origin

Figure 2. Classification of natural resources based on exhaustion

Figure 3. Classification of natural resources by types of economic use

26. Raw materials, their economic and complex use

Modern industry, especially its branches such as chemical synthesis, smelting of light metals, is characterized by an increased demand for energy, water and raw materials. To smelt 1 ton of aluminum, it is necessary to spend tens of times more water than to produce 1 ton of steel, and to produce 1 ton of artificial fiber, it is necessary to use hundreds of times more water than to produce the same amount of cotton fabric. Oil and gas have become the main sources of energy and at the same time important raw materials chemical industry. These circumstances explain the ever-increasing exploitation of oil and gas fields... The production of each new synthetic product entails "chain reactions" in technology - for example, a large amount of chlorine is required for the synthesis of plastics, the production of chlorine involves the use of mercury as a catalyst, and all together - huge expenditures of energy, water and oxygen. Almost all chemical elements that exist on Earth are involved in modern industry.
The question arose before mankind: how long will the necessary natural resources be sufficient for it? Gone are the days when it seemed that the Earth's resources were inexhaustible. The very division of natural resources into inexhaustible and exhaustible is becoming more and more conventional. More and more types of resources are moving from the first category to the second.Now we are already thinking about the possibility of depleting atmospheric oxygen reserves, and in the future the same question may arise even about the resources of solar energy, although its flow still seems to us practically inexhaustible.
There are different forecasts regarding the future of our natural resources. Of course, they should be considered very indicative. When developing such forecasts, one must proceed, on the one hand, from an assessment of the prospects for population growth and production and, accordingly, the needs of society, and, on the other, from the availability of reserves of each resource. However, it would be risky to prolong the current trend of population and production growth far into the future. Thus, it must be assumed that as living standards rise in developing countries, which account for the bulk of population growth, overall growth should slow down. In addition, scientific and technological progress will undoubtedly continue in the direction of searching for more economical, resource-saving technologies, which will gradually reduce the need for many natural sources of production.
Based on the foregoing, one should expect, at least in the coming decades, a further increase in demand for a wide variety of natural resources. When assessing their reserves, it is important to distinguish between two large groups of resources - non-renewable and renewable. The first ones are practically not replenished, and their number steadily decreases with use. This includes mineral resources as well as land resources limited by the size of the earth's surface area. Renewable resources are either capable of self-healing (biological), or are continuously supplied to the Earth from the outside (solar energy), or, being in a continuous cycle, can be reused (water). Of course, renewable resources, like non-renewable ones, are not infinite, but their renewable part (annual income or growth) can be constantly used.
If we turn to the main types of the world's natural resources, then in the very general view we get the following picture. The main type of energy resources is still mineral fuel - oil, gas, coal. These are non-renewable, and at the current rate of growth of their production, they can be exhausted in 80-140 years. True, the share of these sources should be reduced due to the development of atomic energy based on the use of "heavy" nuclear fuel - fissile isotopes of uranium and thorium. But even these resources are non-renewable: according to some sources, uranium will last only for several decades.
The importance of natural resources for the life of society cannot in any way diminish for the simple reason that they remain the only source of material production. Moreover, the less production is associated with local resources, the more its dependence on remote sources increases and the wider the range of such sources, many of which acquire not only national, but also global significance. Let us recall the role of oil and gas fields in the Tyumen North in the economy of our country or the oil of the Persian Gulf in the world economy. Let us add that there are branches of the national economy, and above all agriculture, which cannot "emancipate" from the local natural environment at all and will always be tied to it.
All types of natural resources - thermal, water, mineral, biological, soil - are associated with certain components of the natural complex (geosystem) and constitute a consumable part of these components. The ability to be consumed is a specific property of natural resources that distinguishes them from natural conditions. The latter include permanent properties of natural complexes that are not used to obtain a useful product, but which have a significant positive or negative effect on the development and location of production (for example, temperature and water regime, winds, relief, bearing capacity of soils, permafrost, seismicity).
It is important to distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources. Some resources are renewed due to their constant influx from Space (solar energy), others - due to the continuous circulation of matter in geographic envelope(fresh water), and finally, the third - due to the ability to self-reproduction (biological resources). Non-renewable resources include mineral resources.

Non-renewable resources

The resources of the earth's interior are considered non-renewable. Strictly speaking, many of them can be renewed in the course of geological cycles, but the duration of these cycles, determined by hundreds of millions of years, is incommensurate with the stages of development of society and the rate of consumption of mineral resources.
The planet's irreplaceable resources can be divided into two large groups:
a) Non-renewable mineral resources.
More than a hundred non-combustible materials are currently being mined from the earth's crust. Minerals are formed and modified as a result of the processes that occur during the formation of earth's rocks over many millions of years. The use of a mineral resource includes several stages. The first of these is the discovery of a fairly rich deposit. Then - the extraction of the mineral by organizing some form of its extraction. The third stage is processing the ore to remove impurities and converting it into the desired chemical form. The latter is the use of the mineral for the production of various products.
The development of mineral deposits, the deposits of which are located close to the earth's surface, are carried out by surface mining, arranging open pits, open pit mining by creating horizontal strips, or mining using dredging equipment. When minerals are located far underground, they are extracted by underground mining.
Extraction, processing and use of any non-combustible mineral resource causes disturbance of the soil cover and erosion, pollutes air and water. Underground mining is more dangerous and costly than surface mining, but it is much less likely to disturb the soil cover. In underground mining, water pollution can occur due to mine acid drainage. In most cases, the areas where the extraction is carried out can be restored, but this is an expensive process. Mining and wasteful use of products made from fossil fuels and wood also generate large amounts of solid waste.
Estimating the amount of a useful mineral resource actually available in terms of extraction is a very expensive and complicated process. And besides, it cannot be determined with great precision. Mineral Resource Reserves are categorized as Indicated Resources and Undiscovered Resources. In turn, each of these categories is divided into reserves, that is, those minerals that can be extracted with profit at existing prices with the existing mining technology, and resources - all discovered and undetected resources, including those that cannot be extracted with profit at current prices and existing technology. Most of the published estimates of specific non-renewable resources relate to reserves.
When 80% of the reserves or estimated resource of a material has been recovered and used, the resource is considered depleted, as the remaining 20% ​​is usually not profitable to recover. The amount of the extracted resource and thus the time of depletion can be increased by increasing the estimated reserves if high prices will force them to search for new deposits, develop new production technologies, increase the share of recycling and secondary use, or reduce the level of resource consumption. Some economically depleted resources manage to find a replacement.
To increase stocks, advocates of protection environment propose to increase the share of recycling and reuse of non-renewable mineral resources and reduce unnecessary losses of such resources. Recycling, reuse and waste reduction require less energy for their implementation and less damage to soil and pollute water and air than the use of primary resources.
Environmentalists are urging industrialized countries to move from disposable, high waste to low waste. This will require, in addition to recycling and reuse, also the attraction of economic incentives, specific actions of governments and people, as well as changes in the behavior and lifestyle of the world's population.
b) Non-renewable energy resources.
The main factors that determine the degree of use of any energy source are its estimated reserves, net output of useful energy, cost, potential hazardous impacts on environmental harm, as well as social consequences and impact on state security. Each energy source has advantages and disadvantages.
Conventional crude oil can be easily transported, it is a relatively cheap and widely used fuel, and has a high net useful energy yield. However, the available oil reserves may be depleted in 40-80 years; when oil is burned, a large amount of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, which can lead to global climate change.
Unconventional heavy oil, the remainder of conventional oil, as well as from oil shale and sand, can increase oil reserves. But it is expensive, has a low net energy yield, requires a lot of water to process, and has a more harmful effect on the environment than conventional oil.
Conventional natural gas generates more heat and burns more completely than other fossil fuels, is a versatile and relatively cheap fuel, and has a high net energy yield. But its reserves can be depleted in 40-100 years, and when it is burned, carbon dioxide is formed.
Coal is the world's most abundant fossil fuel. It has a high net useful energy yield for electricity generation and high temperature heat generation for industrial processes, and is relatively cheap. But coal is extremely dirty, its mining is dangerous and harmful to the environment, as well as burning, if there are no expensive special devices for monitoring the level of air pollution; emits more carbon dioxide per unit of energy received than other fossil fuels, and it is inconvenient to use it for traffic and heating houses, unless it is first converted into gaseous or liquid form. Significant disturbance of the soil cover during extraction.
The warmth hidden in earth crust, or geothermal energy, is converted into non-renewable underground deposits of dry steam, water vapor and hot water in different places of the planet. If these deposits are located close enough to earth surface, the heat obtained during their development can be used for space heating and power generation. They can provide energy for 100-200 years to the regions located near the fields, and at a reasonable price. They have an average net energy output and do not emit carbon dioxide. Although this type of energy source also brings a lot of inconvenience to mining and considerable environmental pollution.
The nuclear fission reaction is also a source of energy, and a very promising one. The main advantages of this energy source are that nuclear reactors do not emit carbon dioxide and other substances harmful to the environment, and the degree of water and soil pollution is within acceptable limits, provided that the entire nuclear fuel cycle is running normally. The disadvantages include the fact that the cost of equipment for servicing this energy source is very high; conventional nuclear power plants can only be used to generate electricity; there is a risk of a major accident; net useful energy output is low; storage facilities for radioactive waste have not been developed. Due to the above disadvantages, this energy source is currently not widely used. Therefore, an ecologically clean future belongs to alternative energy sources.
Both types of these resources are equally important to us, but the division is introduced because these two large groups of resources are very different from each other.

Renewable resources

Renewable resources deserve special attention. The whole mechanism of their renewal is, in essence, a manifestation of the functioning of geosystems due to the absorption and transformation of the radiant energy of the Sun - this is the primary source of all renewable resources. Therefore, in their location, they are subject to universal geographic patterns - zoning, sectorality, and high-altitude tiering. It follows from this that the study of the formation and distribution of renewable resources is directly related to the field of physical geography. Renewable resources should be considered as resources of the future: unlike non-renewable ones, they are not doomed to complete extinction with rational use, and their reproduction can be controlled to a certain extent (for example, by means of reclamation of forests, it is possible to increase their productivity and wood yield).
It should be noted that anthropogenic interference in the biological cycle strongly undermines the natural process of renewal of biological resources (and derivatives from them). Therefore, as a result of economic activity, real biological resources are usually lower than potential ones. Thus, forests on Earth have been destroyed over vast areas, and in the preserved forests the annual growth of timber is often 3–4 times less than in undisturbed stands; irrational use of natural pastures leads to a decrease in their productivity. The resources of free oxygen in the atmosphere are also derived from the biological cycle. Their replenishment in the process of photosynthesis is steadily decreasing, and the man-made consumption (mainly when burning fossil fuel) increases.
Consider renewable resources:
a) Free oxygen.
It is renewed mainly in the process of plant photosynthesis; Under natural conditions, the balance of oxygen is maintained by its consumption for the processes of respiration, decay, and the formation of carbonates. Already now, mankind uses about 10% (and according to some estimates - even more) of the incoming part of the oxygen balance in the atmosphere. True, the decrease in atmospheric oxygen has not yet been felt even with precise instruments. But under the condition of an annual 5% increase in oxygen consumption for industrial and energy needs, its content in the atmosphere will decrease, according to F.F.Davitaia's calculations, by 2/3, i.e. it will become critical for human life in 180 years, and with an annual growth of 10% - in 100 years.
b) Fresh water resources.
Fresh water on Earth is annually renewed in the form atmospheric precipitation, the volume of which is 520 thousand km 3. However, in practice, in water management calculations and forecasts, one should proceed only from that part of the precipitation that flows down the earth's surface, forming watercourses. This will amount to 37 - 38 thousand km 3. Currently, 3.6 thousand km 3 of runoff is diverted for household needs in the world, but in fact more is used, since here it is necessary to add that part of the runoff that is spent on diluting the polluted waters; in total, this will amount to 8.2 thousand km 3, that is, more than 1/5 of the world's river flow. According to M. I. Lvovich, by 2000 the world demand for water will exceed the annual volume of runoff, if the principles of water use do not change. If the discharge of wastewater is completely stopped, then the annual water consumption will be about 7 thousand km 3, but this water will no longer return to the rivers, i.e. in production). Additional reserves of water resources - desalination of sea water, the use of icebergs.
Large quantities of fresh water are contaminated by human activities. Let's consider this using the example of Moscow:
Moscow is the first city in Russia in terms of size and importance, and because of its size, a huge number of industrial enterprises are concentrated in it. The volume of industrial effluents defies any description. Thermal pollution plays an important role along with industrial effluents. An increase in groundwater temperature affects the surrounding nature. Below the city, the Moskva River almost never freezes; it has turned into a huge drainage ditch for human life. The sources of water supply for Moscow are the Moscow River and its tributaries, as well as groundwater, such as those that form in the basin of the river. Moscow due to surface runoff, and the waters of deep horizons, not associated with surface runoff.
Groundwater reserves in the Moscow region are insufficient for stable provision of the city's household and drinking needs, in connection with which surface sources are used.
Within the city, the water fund is represented by the river. Moscow and more than 70 small rivers and streams with a total length of 165.0 km. A completely open channel has been preserved at seven rivers: Yauza, Setun, Skhodnya, Ramenki, Ochakovka, Ichki and Chechera. The rest of the rivers are partially or completely enclosed in collector systems and serve to divert surface runoff. In addition to contaminated surface runoff, the quality of rivers is negatively affected by the discharge of insufficiently treated wastewater from industrial enterprises and city aeration stations.

Below the confluence of the Moscow-Volga canal into the r. Moscow, the flow rate of the river is as follows: 5 cubic meters. m / s - flow rate of the river. Moscow below the Rublevsky water intake; - 30-35 cubic meters m / s - design water flow rate from the Moscow-Volga canal; 10 cubic meters m / s - surface runoff (from the tributaries of the Moskva river within the city limits); 66 cc m / s waste water from the city sewerage, discharged into the river. Moscow; 5 cubic meters m / s - wastewater from industrial enterprises entering the river in addition to citywide sewage networks.
River basin Moscow within the city of Moscow is under the influence of the industrial complex, which has a significant impact on the change chemical composition water as p. Moscow and its tributaries. In the capital, there are about 30 enterprises (not counting the CHP and aeration stations), supplying from 41 thousand to 39850 thousand cubic meters. m / year of waste water in the river Skhodnya, Setun, Yauza, Pekhorka, Moscow, etc. In general, the r. Moscow within the city of Moscow receives up to 1,767,540 thousand cubic meters. m / year of industrial and domestic wastewater from leading industries based in the region.
Surface runoff from the city's territory is formed due to melted snow and rainwater, as well as irrigation and washing waters. In the districts of Moscow, the value of the runoff modulus varies within 5.64 (Zheleznodorozhny district) - 15.0 l / s sq. Km (Sverdlovsk region). The average flow module for the city of Moscow is 9 l / s sq. km. In general, there is an increase in the flow modulus from the outskirts of the city to the center. Surface runoff from the territory of the city is not cleared of pollution and directly enters the water bodies, carrying with it a large amount of organic, suspended solids and oil products. In general, in Moscow during the year with surface runoff, 3840 tons of oil products, 452080 tons of suspended solids, 173280 tons of chlorides, 18460 tons of organic matter (in terms of BOD) are received. As a result, oil products enter the city's water bodies with surface runoff 1.8 times, and suspended solids almost 24 times more than with waste water from enterprises. Most of the pollution: oil products - 63%, suspended solids - 75%, organic matter - 64%, chlorides - 95%, enters the river. Moscow with surface runoff in winter and spring.
Historically, there has been a strong custom to locate landfills in spent quarries and ravines, that is, as close as possible to groundwater; to locate factories, treatment facilities, filtration fields, warehouses - in river valleys, i.e. where natural protection of groundwater is often lacking.
c) Biological resources.
They are made up of plant and animal mass, the one-time supply of which on Earth is measured in the order of 2.4 10 12 tons (in terms of dry matter). The annual increase in biomass in the world (i.e. biological productivity) is approximately 2.3 10 11 tons. The bulk of the Earth's biomass (about 4/5) falls on forest vegetation, which gives more than 1/3 of the total annual increase in living matter ... Human activities have led to a significant reduction in the total biomass and biological productivity of the Earth. True, replacing part of the former forest areas with arable land and pastures, people gained a benefit in the qualitative composition of biological products and were able to provide food, as well as important technical raw materials (fiber, leather, etc.) to the growing population of the Earth.
Food resources make up no more than 1% of the total biological productivity of land and ocean and no more than 20% of all agricultural products. Taking into account population growth and the need to provide adequate nutrition for the entire population of the Earth by 2000, the production of crop products should be increased at least 2 times, and livestock products - by 3. This means that the production of primary (plant) biological products, including feed for animals, it is necessary to increase at least 3-4 times. Calculations for the expansion of cultivated land are unlikely to have serious grounds, since the reserves of suitable areas for this are extremely limited. Obviously, a way out should be sought in the intensification of agriculture, including the development of irrigated agriculture, mechanization, selection, etc., as well as in the rational use of the biological resources of the Ocean. The necessary conditions and resources are available, but the calculations of some authors on the possibility of feeding tens and hundreds of billions and even several trillions of people on Earth cannot be regarded as anything other than utopian.
Among other biological resources, wood is of the greatest importance. Now on the exploited forest areas, which make up 1/3 of the entire forest land area, the annual timber harvest (2.2 billion m 3) is approaching the annual growth. Meanwhile, the demand for timber will grow. Further exploitation of forests should be carried out only within the framework of their renewable part, without affecting the "fixed capital", that is, the area of ​​forests should not decrease, felling should be accompanied by reforestation. In addition, it is necessary to increase the productivity of forests through land reclamation, to use wood raw materials more rationally and, as far as possible, to replace it with other materials.
Prospects for solving the problems associated with the exhaustion of land resources should hardly be reduced to fantastic projects of human settlement in high towers, on floating platforms, at the bottom of the Ocean and in the depths of the earth's crust. Some authors justify the inevitability of such decisions by extrapolating the current population growth rates to an indefinitely distant future. With such a hypothetical situation, in 700 years, every inhabitant of our planet would have only 1 m2 of area. However, there is no basis for such extrapolations.
The realistic path, first of all, presupposes the restructuring of the existing land use on a scientific basis, that is, the rational organization of the territory. The optimal social function must be determined for each site. Of course, the rational organization of the territory presupposes both the reclamation of lands disturbed by previous economic use, and the intensification of agriculture, and a thoughtful approach to the creation of reservoirs, and much more.
As can be seen from all of the above, the problems associated with raw materials are very acute in our time. Resource reserves are depleted. These are mainly energy resources. As a consequence, it is necessary to pay attention to renewable energy sources. Among them, "white coal" - the energy of water streams, is now of the greatest practical importance, however, the full use of the world's hydropower resources could provide only half of today's electricity needs. The largest renewable energy source is the rays of the sun. In theory, it is possible to "capture" almost as much solar heat annually as is contained in all fossil fuels. However, in practice, this is impracticable due to the low flux density of the sun's rays: solar power plants require large areas. The situation is similar with the energy of tides, wind and internal heat. The use of these springs is effective only in certain favorable local conditions (on coasts with especially high tides, in areas with stable strong winds, in places where hot springs are concentrated, etc.). The greatest potential lies in the use of "light" nuclear fuel - the isotope of hydrogen deuterium (by fusing helium nuclei from it). Although this source is also essentially non-renewable, it is practically inexhaustible, since the full use of thermonuclear energy would exceed the effect of all other real energy resources by millions of times. The use of "light" nuclear fuel will become possible when ways of controlling the thermonuclear reaction are found.
There is also a danger of wasting non-energy resources: biological, mineral, fresh water, free oxygen. The way out of this problem can be the recycling of waste, the economical use of water, the transition to more durable and lightweight materials (carbon fiber reinforced plastics).
The main thing is that people know about this problem and try to solve it, and not sit idly by.

1. Rational use and protection of water resources in agriculture

Increasing the efficiency of environmental protection measures is associated, first of all, with the widespread introduction of resource-saving, low-waste and waste-free technological processes, and a decrease in air pollution and water bodies.
Environmental protection is a very multifaceted problem, the solution of which is addressed, in particular, by engineering and technical workers of almost all specialties that are associated with economic activities in settlements and industrial enterprises, which can be a source of pollution mainly air and aquatic environment.
The Water Code of Ukraine regulates legal relations with the aim of ensuring the conservation, scientific substantiation, rational use of water for the needs of the population and economic sectors, restoration of water resources, protection of water from pollution and depletion, avoiding the harmful effects of water and eliminating its consequences, improving the state of water bodies, and also protection of the rights of enterprises, institutions, organizations and citizens to use water. The water fund of Ukraine includes all water bodies on the territory of Ukraine. It includes: surface waters (lakes), streams (rivers, streams), artificial reservoirs (reservoirs, ponds) and canals; groundwater and sources; internal sea ​​waters and the territorial sea.
Violation of water legislation entails disciplinary, administrative, civil or criminal liability.

53. Legal aspect of subsoil protection

Subsoil is a section of the earth's crust located under the surface of the land and the bottom of water bodies; extends to depths available for geological exploration and development. Mineral resources are the exclusive property of the people of Ukraine and are transferred only for use.
The State Subsoil Fund covers both subsoil areas that are used and subsoil areas that are not involved in use, including the continental shelf and the exclusive marine economic zone.
Mineral deposits are accumulations of mineral substances in the depths, on the surface of the earth, in sources of water and gases, at the bottom of reservoirs, which in terms of quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence are acceptable for industrial use.
All mineral deposits, including technogenic ones, with reserves assessed as production ones, constitute the State Fund for Mineral Deposits, and all previously assessed mineral deposits are the reserve of this fund. This fund is part of the State Subsoil Fund.
Minerals by value are divided into minerals of national and local importance. The assignment of minerals to the national and local significance is carried out by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine with the filing of the State Committee of Ukraine on Geology and Subsoil Use.
Subsoil users can be enterprises, institutions, organizations, citizens of Ukraine, as well as foreign legal entities and citizens. The subsoil is transferred for permanent or temporary use.
Subsoil use is paid. Payment is made for the use of subsoil within the boundaries of the territory of Ukraine, its continental shelf and the exclusive maritime economic zone.
The main requirements in the field of subsoil protection are:
providing a complete and comprehensive geological study of the subsoil;
adherence to the procedure for transferring subsoil for use established by law and preventing unauthorized use of subsoil;
rational extraction and use of mineral reserves and the components they contain;
prevention of the harmful effects of work related to the use of subsoil, etc.
In case of violation of these and other requirements, the use of subsoil may be limited, temporarily prohibited or stopped by the bodies of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine, state mining supervision, state geological control or other specially authorized state bodies in the manner prescribed by the legislation of Ukraine.

63. Protection of endangered and rare species of animals. Red Book of Ukraine

The nature reserve fund is areas of land and water space, natural complexes and objects that have a special environmental, scientific, aesthetic and other value, and therefore are allocated in order to preserve the natural environment, the gene pool of animals and flora, maintenance of the general ecological balance and ecological safety of Ukraine. The natural reserve fund includes: natural objects (reserves, national parks, etc.) and artificial objects ( botanical gardens, zoological parks, etc.). Nature reserves, protected areas of biosphere reserves, National parks are the property of the people of Ukraine. The rest of the objects of the nature reserve fund may be in other forms of ownership under certain conditions.
For violation of the legislation of Ukraine on the nature reserve fund, the guilty person may be brought to disciplinary, administrative, civil or criminal liability.
The Law of Ukraine "On the Natural Reserve Fund" regulates the economic, social, legal and environmental relations of the natural reserve fund in Ukraine.
A lot has been written and is being written about the environment, but this does not even slow down the movement of mankind towards a global catastrophe. Unfortunately, in this march of mankind to its destruction, there is also the "contribution" of Ukraine.
By the middle of the 20th century, the rapid development of industry, the growth of cities and other factors (the improvement of deadly weapons) sharply increased the harmful effects on nature.
To prevent the impending disaster, international organizations and projects appear (IUCN, "Man and the Biosphere", "World Conservation Strategy", etc.). Ukraine supports these and other international projects, first of all with a serious contribution of its most talented and, of course, the lowest paid scientists who work without serious government assistance.
A kind of greening of science is observed, i.e. ecology has become the basis for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of living organisms, has given rise to a number of legal norms, has an impact on the development of philosophy, sociology, economics, etc. etc.
Ukraine has had and continues to have one of the resource-intensive economies and a huge number of environmentally “dirty” enterprises. On June 26, 1991, the Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection" was adopted. It contains 16 sections on the regulation of various areas related to the protection of the natural environment, as an essential condition for economic and social development. The law defines the legal, economic and social foundations for environmental protection. The principles of environmental protection are determined: the obligation to comply with environmental standards; guaranteeing an environmentally safe environment; ecologization of material production; publicity and scientific character; responsibility for violations.
The Ukrainian Constitution adopted in 1996 reads: "Ensuring environmental safety and maintaining ecological balance in the territory of Ukraine, overcoming the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster - a catastrophe of a planetary scale, preserving the gene pool of the Ukrainian people is the responsibility of the state."
Now we can say that the legislation of Ukraine on nature protection is based on the Constitution of the country, the Law on Environmental Protection, legal norms that are contained in the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offenses, the Criminal Code of Ukraine, in a number of other branches of law (land, water, etc. etc.)
Article 50 of the Constitution of Ukraine reads: "Everyone has the right to a safe environment for life and health and to compensation for the harm caused by violation of this right."
I must emphasize that the legislation of Ukraine demonstrates the most serious approach to the problem “The powers of the Verkhovna Rada include:
Approval of national programs of economic, scientific and technical, social, national and cultural development, environmental protection. "
Nature protection is the task of the Cabinet of Ministers.
Directly state administration in the field of environmental protection and use of natural resources is carried out by the Ministry of Nature Protection, which is the main link in the system of central executive authorities. The Minister is a member of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.
The Ministry has its own governing body in the regions: the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, regions, the cities of Kiev and Sevastopol. In addition to directorates in the regions, he has at his immediate disposal the sanitary and epidemiological stations belonging to the Ministry of Health, departments and inspections under other ministries and departments of Ukraine, which control the rational use of mineral resources, forests, waters, fish resources, etc. From this it is clear that the fault of our impact, in the most negative respect, on the environment is not only the indisputable poverty of our state, the low ecological culture of the population, but also the lack of clear coordination at the state level of the work of various protective structures. The management system of environmental authorities cannot provide the necessary coordination of the relevant organizations. Moreover, she is not able to establish interaction with the movement of conservationists.
In this situation, the Red Data Book of Ukraine cannot in any way take its rightful place in the legal protection of nature, the provision on which was approved by the Resolution of the Verkhovna Rada of October 29, 1992.
The Red Book is the main state document containing generalized information about state of the art animals and plants of Ukraine, endangered, on measures for their preservation and scientifically secured reproduction.
The Cabinet of Ministers ensures the official publication of the Red Book at least once every 10 years. It is conducted by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine.
Based on the example of the long-term struggle around Mount Beaufort, I can draw a conclusion about the weakness of the environmental expertise carried out by the Ministry, the cowardice of its officials (they decide to dig or not to dig for many years and depending on who invited them: the city - to hide this mountain, etc., means to ruin the whole region, and if the mining administration is to dig this mountain, etc., then it means feeding the whole region by selling fluxes to factories).
But environmental expertise is a powerful weapon in the hands of environmental organizations.
Environmental law is in the most stagnant state in Ukraine. Environmental human rights are not protected (it is enough to ask about the composition of the water that is supplied to our homes). Environmental funds are negligible. Due to all this, environmental crime does not even attract (in the rarest case) the attention of law enforcement agencies. And chapter 7 of the Administrative Offenses Code "Administrative offenses in the field of nature protection, use of natural resources ..." are in the center of attention, when in universities there are offsets on the AP.
But the chapter provides for liability for violations such as:
1. "Damage and pollution of agricultural and other lands" (Article 52).
2. "Violations of the rules for the use of land" (Article 53).
3. "Unauthorized seizure of a land plot" (Article 53).
4. "Concealment or distortion of data on land management" (Article 53).

76. Sovereign management of nature management and environmental protection

Environmental protection is a component of rational nature management. It is carried out by various methods, including legal ones. At the same time, predominantly all components of the natural environment are protected in legal forms. The modern main normative legal acts governing the foundations of the organization of environmental protection are the Laws of Ukraine: “On environmental protection” dated June 25, 1991, “On atmospheric air protection” dated October 16, 1992, “On natural reserve fund of Ukraine "from June 16, 1992," About the animal world "from March 3, 1993," About plant quarantine "from June 30, 1993, etc. Also, some relations in the field of use and protection of the natural environment are regulated by codes ...
Thus, the basis for the legal protection of the natural environment is formed by the norms of land, water, forestry legislation, legislation on subsoil, etc.
Environmental rights and obligations of citizens of Ukraine is a system of powers and obligations legally assigned to citizens in the environmental sphere. Environmental rights and obligations are fully enshrined in the Law of Ukraine "On environmental protection" (Articles 9-12)
According to the Law, a citizen of Ukraine has the right to: a safe environment for life and health; unification into public nature conservation formations; obtaining, in accordance with the established procedure, complete and reliable environmental information, etc. In addition, the Constitution of Ukraine says: “Everyone has the right to a safe environment for life and health, and to compensation for damage caused by violation of this right. Everyone is guaranteed the right of free access to information about the state of the environment, about the quality of food and household items, as well as the right to disseminate it ”(Article 50). It has been officially established that generalized comprehensive information about the environmental, radiation situation and the state of morbidity of the population should be made public on the territory of Ukraine at the request of the Ministry of Nature, the Ministry of Health of Ukraine through Ukrinform twice a year: for the first half of the year - until September 15, for the whole year - until April 1 of the next of the year.
All environmental rights of citizens are protected in court.
Along with the rights, the Law of Ukraine "On the protection of the natural environment" provides for certain obligations in relation to citizens. Thus, citizens are obliged: to preserve, protect and rationally use natural resources; not violate the environmental rights of other entities; compensate for the damage caused by them, etc. An important section is about environmental expertise, the obligatory nature of which is enshrined in law.
The right to use natural resources is a process of rational human use of natural resources to meet various needs and interests. The most important principles of nature management are its targeted nature, planning and timing, licensing, taking into account the great importance in the life of society. At the same time, such groups of nature management differ as the right of general and special use of land, waters, forests, mineral resources, fauna and other natural resources.
In accordance with the Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection", all citizens can be subjects of the right to use natural resources to meet various needs and interests. It is carried out by citizens free of charge and without a license. The right of general use of natural resources is also enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine: "Every citizen has the right to use natural objects of the people's property right in accordance with the law" (Article 13)
Special use of natural resources, in contrast to general use, is the use of specific natural resources carried out by citizens, enterprises and organizations in cases where the corresponding part of natural resources, as defined in the legislation, is transferred to them for use. Usually such a transfer is paid and timed. The transfer of natural resources takes place on the basis of special permits - state acts for the right of permanent use, for example, land, land lease agreements, licenses, etc. Purposes of special use are always stipulated. In addition, the Law imposes special obligations on subjects of special nature management, such as payments for special use of natural resources and payments for environmental pollution they produce.
Control in the field of nature management and environmental protection is carried out through verification, supervision, inspection, inventory and expertise. It can be carried out by both authorized state bodies and public entities. State control is vested in the councils of people's deputies, state administrations, the Ministry of Environmental Protection and its local bodies.
Public control is carried out by public inspectors for environmental protection, the procedure for which is determined by the Regulation approved by the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
The Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection" regulates the relations of environmental protection, rational use of natural resources, ensuring the environmental safety of human life and is aimed at creating favorable conditions for the economic and social development of Ukraine in the implementation of environmental policy.

Bibliography

1. A.G. Isachenko, "Geography in modern world". / 1998
2. State report on the state of the environment in Moscow / 1992
3.G.V. Stadnitsky, A.I. Rodionov. "Ecology".
4. Newspaper "Geography". No. 3, No. 5, No. 6/1999
5. V. V. Plotnikov "Introduction to ecological chemistry", 1989.
6. Kopychikov V.V. "Pravoznavstvo". Navch. Posibnik. -
Kiiv, Yurinkom Inter, 1999.
7. Bedriy Ya., Genik Ya., Orlov VM, Titenko VF. "Fundamentals of ecology and sociology". Navch. Handbook for enterprises in a language. Edited by MV Zakharchenko - Lviv, 1997.
8. Bilyavskiy G.O., Padun M.M., Furduy R.S. "Fundamentals of home ecology".
2nd view. - K.: 1995.

Natural resources
Natural resources of Russia
Natural resources of Kazakhstan
Natural resources of Russia 2
World natural resources

The classification is based on three criteria: according to sources of origin, according to use in production and according to the degree of depletion of resources (Protasov, 1985).

According to sources of origin resources are subdivided into biological, mineral and energy resources.

Biological resources¾ these are all living environment-forming components of the biosphere: producers, consumers and reducers with genetic material enclosed in them (Reimers, 1990). They are sources of material and spiritual benefits for people. These include commercial objects, cultivated plants, domestic animals, scenic landscapes, microorganisms, that is, plant resources, animal resources, etc. are of particular importance. Genetic resources are of particular importance.

Mineral resources¾ these are all suitable for consumption material components of the lithosphere, used in the economy as mineral raw materials or energy sources. Mineral raw materials can be ore, if metals are extracted from it, and non-metallic if non-metallic components (phosphorus, etc.) are extracted, or used as building materials.

If mineral resources are used as fuel (coal, oil, gas, oil shale, peat, wood, nuclear energy) and at the same time as a source of energy in engines to generate steam and electricity, then they are called fuel and energy resources.

Energy resources is called the aggregate of the energy of the Sun and space, atomic energy, fuel and energy, thermal and other sources of energy.

The second criterion by which resources are classified ¾ on their use in production... This includes the following resources:

¨ land fund ¾ all land within the country and the world, included by its purpose in the following categories: agricultural, settlements, non-agricultural purposes (industry, transport, mining, etc.), the world land fund ¾ 13.4 billion hectares;

¨ forest fund ¾ part of the land fund of the Earth on which the forest grows or can grow, allocated for agriculture and the organization of natural specially protected areas; it is part of biological resources;

¨ water resources ¾ number of underground and surface waters that can be used for various purposes in the economy (fresh water resources are of particular importance, the main source of which is river waters);

¨ hydropower resources that the river, the tidal activity of the ocean, etc., can give;

¨ resources fauna¾ the number of inhabitants of waters, forests, sandbanks that a person can use without disturbing the ecological balance;

¨ minerals (ore, non-metallic, fuel and energy resources) ¾ natural accumulation of minerals in the earth's crust, which can be used in the economy, and the accumulation of minerals forms their deposits, the reserves of which should be of industrial importance.

From an environmental point of view, the classification of resources according to the third criterion is important ¾ according to the degree of exhaustion. Depletion of natural resources from an ecological point of view, this is a discrepancy between the safe standards for the removal of a natural resource from natural systems and subsoil and the needs of mankind (country, region, enterprise, etc.). In fig. 9.5 provides a scheme for classifying resources according to the degree of depletion.

Rice. 9.5. Classification of natural resources

Inexhaustible resources¾ directly solar energy and the natural forces caused by it, for example, wind and tides, exist forever and in unlimited quantities.

Exhaustible resources have quantitative restrictions, but some of them can renew, if there are natural possibilities for this, or even with the help of a person (artificial purification of water, air, increasing soil fertility, restoring the number of wild animals, etc.). However, a very important group of resources non-renewable... These include such relics of ancient biospheres as fuel and iron ore, as well as a number of metal ores of intraterrestrial (endogenous) origin. All of them have limited reserves in the lithosphere. These resources are finite and non-renewable.

Of course, a person has the ability to replace the most scarce resources with more widespread and large reserves. But, as a rule, just as when replacing some ecological resources (for example, food) in ecosystems with others, the quality decreases.

Thus, one of the most important limiting factors of human survival as biological species(Homo sapiens) is the limitedness and depletion of the most important natural resources for him. But a person is also a social being, therefore, the nature of the use of resources is very important for the development and survival of human society.

Currently, humanity has access to climatic and space resources, resources of the oceans and continents. Their quantitative consumption is constantly growing, their “assortment” is growing, often without taking into account resource availability.

Resource availability¾ it is the ratio between the amount of natural resources and the amount of their use. It is expressed either by the number of years for which a given resource should be sufficient, or by its reserves per capita. The indicators of resource availability are primarily influenced by the wealth or poverty of the territory with natural resources. But no less important are the scales of their consumption (for example, mining), therefore the very concept of resource availability is socio-economic... Thus, resource availability cannot be judged only by the size of reserves, but the intensity of extraction (consumption by society) must be taken into account.

The consumption of natural resources is primarily due to the fact that a person, trying to “remove” the influence of limiting natural factors, in order to survive and win the competition, began to create his own anthropogenic ecosystems.

Control questions

1. What is characteristic of humans as a biological species?

2. What is the difference between man and the animal world? What is society?

3. What made humans build their own ecosystem?

4. What features of the species allowed him to do this?

5. What limiting factors and why does a person remain dependent?

6. What is the significance of the gene pool and in what genetic processes is human DNA involved?

7. Why, unlike animals, it was man who managed to put the species in the conditions of the broadest ecological niche?

8. What are the features of adaptation processes in an artificial urban environment?

9. What are the factors limiting the growth of the human population?

10. Why does exponential dependence prevail in the dynamics of human population growth? Give a description of the demographic pyramids.

11. What can happen to the human population if its size reaches its maximum biological capacity?

12. What are natural resources and what are they made of?

13. How are resources classified by source of origin? for use in production? by the degree of exhaustion?

14. What is resource availability?

There are various approaches to the study and classification of natural resources. The ecological approach is based on the concept of “integral resource” (according to Remers). The integral resource includes all natural, labor and material resources. Natural resources (natural goods) include:

Energetic resources;

Gas-atmospheric resources;

Water resources;

Soil and geological resources;

Producer resources (vegetation);

Consumer resources (fauna);

Reducers resources (microorganisms).

Each of the listed types of resources has a more detailed division. So, energy resources are divided:

Solar radiation;

Cosmic rays;

Energy of sea tides, ocean currents;

Geothermal energy;

Potential and kinetic energy of air, water (ice) and rocks (including the energy of pressure and pressure difference, seismic energy, etc.);

Atmospheric electricity;

Terrestrial magnetism;

Energy of natural atomic decay and spontaneous chemical reactions;

Bioenergy;

Thermal energy, radiation and electromagnetic pollution;

Oil, natural gas, coal, shale, peat, energy of artificial atomic decay and nuclear fusion.

The term “complex resource group” includes:

Climatic resources;

Recreational resources;

Anthropoecological resources;

Cognitive and informational natural resources;

Resources of space and time.

There is a classification of natural resources according to the natural-typological and economic principle, which is focused mainly on their economic use.

Rice. 4.1. Classification of natural resources according to the ecological criterion of their exhaustion

One of the classifications of natural resources is shown in the diagram (fig. 4.1.). In this case, natural resources include the natural means of subsistence of people, not created by their labor (water, soil, plants, animals, minerals). The diagram shows that water and atmospheric air are inexhaustible only quantitatively, and qualitatively they are exhaustible.

Energy resources, depending on the source of energy, can be classified as renewable (energy from the sun, photosynthesis, hydropower, energy of tides, waves, wind, geothermal, energy of evaporation and precipitation processes, etc.) and non-renewable (gas, oil, coal, peat, shale, nuclear fuel, etc.).

According to the World Wide Fund for Nature Protection, over 25 years (1970-1995) people have destroyed more than 30% of the planet's natural resources. And the pressure of global consumption on the environment continues to increase as people increasingly use the Earth's resources such as fish, plants, timber, water, and release carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. World mining the main types of mineral raw materials over the past 25 years have exceeded its volume over the previous 100 years, which has led to the emergence of complex environmental problems.

Our country has always occupied one of the first places in the world in terms of explored reserves and production of a number of minerals. Within the territory of the former USSR about 50% of the world's forecasted coal resources are concentrated. Explored reserves of iron ore account for approximately 40% of the world's reserves, and manganese reserves - over 75%. In general, more than 20 thousand mineral deposits have been explored on the territory of the former USSR.

The national wealth of Russia is estimated at almost 400 trillion dollars (the calculations of the State Statistics Committee and the Russian Academy of Sciences, using different methods, give a range from 340 to 380 trillion dollars). The national wealth includes all the accumulated resources of the economy, both renewable and non-renewable. The share of the latter natural resources reaches 80–85% of the total national wealth, but only 10–12% is accounted for by productive capital.

Russia has one of the world's largest mineral and raw material potential. To date, more than a thousand deposits of solid minerals have been explored in our country. The mineral resource potential of some types of minerals is presented in tab. 4.1

Table 4.1
Mineral resources potential of Russia

Deposits of minerals for the needs of the building materials industry and construction are widespread almost everywhere.

On rice. 4.2 shows mineral deposits in the Moscow region.

Rice. 4.2. Layout of minerals in the Moscow region

The Moscow region, relatively poor in natural resources, is well supplied with raw materials for the production of various building materials, in which the capital and the region are in great need.

Moscow has long used building stone, reserves of which were found on the banks of the Moskva River, Oka and Pakhra. The first stone Moscow Kremlin under Dmitry Donskoy was built from the "Myachkovsky" or "white" stone, which was mined in quarries in the village of Myachkovo, not far from the confluence of the Pakhra into the Moskva River. Today in the Moscow region there are many large modern enterprises that extract a variety of building materials mainly by open cut.

In Voskresensk, in the river valley, there are relatively large deposits high quality limestone - raw material for the production of cement and other building materials. The Yegoryevskoe phosphorite deposit is located nearby. Phosphorites used for the production of mineral fertilizers at the Voskresensk Chemical Combine are mined in quarries near the village of Fosforitny.

Not far from Lyubertsy, near new frontier in Moscow, there is a deposit of sands used in the glass industry not only in the Moscow region, but also in other regions of the center of Russia. These sands are also used for the production of silicate bricks and reinforced concrete products in the village of Kotelniki near Lyubertsy.

Glass-ceramic production based on special clays and sands is also developed to the north of Moscow in the settlements of Verbilki, Zaprudnya and Mukhanovo.

The industry of building materials, based on sand and gravel mined in the area, acquired an important importance here, too. There are especially many gravel and sand pits on the Smolensk-Moscow Upland.

Lightweight clays are used for the production of bricks and cement. Around the city of Moscow (within its old borders) there were many clay deposits suitable for the production of ceramic bricks. These are Skhodnenskoe and Khimkinskoe, Nikolskoe and Losinoostrovskoe, Likhoborskoe and Lianozovskoe deposits.

Today, on the territory of the Moscow region as a whole, tens of millions of tons of minerals are extracted annually - sand, gravel, clay, sandstone, limestone, dolomite, phosphorites. Even more is imported from other regions, while the amount of various resources exported from the Moscow region is an order of magnitude less.

Several thousand oil, gas and condensate fields have been explored in Russia by now. Russia accounts for 11% of world oil production, 30% - gas, 10% - coal, 14% - commercial iron ore, 10-15% - non-ferrous and rare metals. The gross potential value of the explored reserves is estimated at $ 28.6 trillion, and the forecast potential is $ 140 trillion. However, Russian deposits differ from foreign ones in more difficult development conditions, remoteness and poorer quality of minerals. Depletion of deposits is becoming another problem. Therefore, the realization of the raw material potential is becoming an increasingly difficult and expensive task. The provision of the Russian industry with competitive resources is currently somewhat lower than the global one (except for gas and gold).

By the middle of the XXI century, a sharp increase in the world's population is expected from 5.8 billion people (1995) to I billion (2030-2050). Accordingly, one should expect an increase in energy consumption from today's 13.2 billion tons to 21-30 billion tons of standard fuel per year.

The concept "New Energy Idea for the 21st Century" is called upon to assist in solving energy problems, which was adopted at the initiative of Russian specialists by the participants of the First International Conference "Energy and Society" and the Sixth Congress of the International Public Fuel and Energy Association held in Moscow. Philosophically, the concept of "New Energy Idea" comes from the realization that all the troubles on Earth are not due to a lack of resources or technical imperfection, but from abundance and wasteful use, from a passive attitude of a person to his fate and the fate of society as a whole. A number of measures for the phased restructuring of the energy sector are proposed. The main emphasis should be placed primarily on the constant growth of production and consumption of "clean" and renewable energy sources.

Russia will play a significant role in the upcoming perestroika. First of all, because it is on the territory of Russia that the main reserves of fossil fuels are concentrated, a great scientific, technical and intellectual potential is concentrated. In particular, experience has been accumulated in the creation of intercontinental energy flows, gas and oil pipelines. The forecast of energy production in Russia is given in tab. 4.2.

Table 4.2
Forecast of energy production in Russia

Types of primary energy resources	1995 year		2000 year		2010 r.
	required	Max.	required	Max.	required	Max.
Energy production - total, million tons of fuel equivalent	1380	1455	1410	1600	1550	1820
including: oil and condensate, million tons	280	310	270	310	280	350
natural and associated gas, bcm	615	630	660	740	740	860
coal, million tons	260	275	250	290	300	340
hydropower, billion kWh	155	162	165	170	180	190
nuclear energy, billion kWh	110	120	120	125	125	160
unconventional energy resources, mln tons of fuel equivalent	2	3	4	6	10	17

A special place among natural resources is occupied by water resources - that part of the Earth's water reserves that is technically available and economically feasible to meet the needs of society. The assessment of water resources is carried out according to the average annual flow.

The annually renewable water resources in the former USSR are 4,760 km 3. This fresh water resource is distributed as follows: river runoff - 4 384 km 3, groundwater - 340 km 3, ice, feeding rivers - 30 km 3, thermal waters - 6 km 3.

The age-old reserves of fresh water in the former USSR amount to 40,900 km 3 and are distributed as follows: lakes - 26,900 km 3, glaciers - 11,400 km 3, swamps - 3,000 km 3. About 3 million rivers flow on the territory of the former USSR (Table 4.3.).

Table 4.3
The main characteristics of the rivers of Russia

Small rivers make up the overwhelming majority of the country's watercourses. They are easily silted up, polluted by household and industrial emissions. Meanwhile, their economic, environment-forming, recreational roles are very significant. The food potential of the country is mainly located in their floodplains.

The state of small rivers integrally characterizes the natural environment in the area of ​​their flow.

In the late 1980s, the structure of water consumption in Russia for various needs was characterized by the following average data,%:

Industrial water use - 60;

Domestic drinking water supply - 13;

Irrigation - 23;

Agricultural water supply - 4.

About 40% of all wastewater in Russia is discharged into water bodies without treatment. Every fifth sample of tap water does not comply with sanitary and chemical standards, and every tenth sample does not meet microbiological standards. The total volume of polluted wastewater discharged into surface water bodies in Russia in 1996 amounted to 22.4 billion m 3.

Land resources (land fund) of Russia is 1 709.6 million hectares, but this does not mean that it is unlimited and inexhaustible. More than 60% of the country's area is permafrost, 13% is agricultural land and only 7.7% is arable land. According to the agrochemical survey, 16.5 million hectares of Russian arable land have a very low humus content, 21 million hectares - a low one. The "nutritional value" of chernozems in the central regions has almost halved over the past 100 years. Many hectares of land in Russia are damaged: contaminated with pesticides, heavy metals and fluoride. According to aerospace survey data, the distribution areas of man-made emissions around industrial complexes cover an area equal to 1% of the total area Russian Federation.

As a result of erosion (destruction by water) and deflation (destruction by wind), soils in the world have lost 1.6-2 million km 2 (currently 1.4-1.6 million km 2 are used on the farm). Erosion and deflation annually destroy about 3% of arable land. In total, 35% of all lands in Russia are eroded.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the ecological situation in Russia is not homogeneous. 15% Russian territory, where 2/3 of the population of the country live, are characterized as ecologically unfavorable. First of all, in the European part, in the Urals, these also include the locations of industrial agglomerations and powerful mining enterprises in Siberia and Of the Far East... At the same time, continuous tracts of undisturbed ecosystems have survived on the territory of Russia, which account for about 65% of the country's territory (almost 11 million km 2). These are the regions of Siberia, the Far East, the Arctic and the Subarctic (including the European part). They form the world's largest center for environmental stabilization.

Under natural resources in the economy any natural components and properties of the natural environment that have use value are understood. These include: land, soil, water, subsoil, flora and fauna resources, recreational natural resources, other components of the natural environment located on the territory, in the water area, in the Earth and waters, on the continental shelf, as well as within the exclusive economic zones.

Natural resources serve not only to meet the needs of society for the benefits of life, but also to a large extent ensure the sustainability of the biosphere and "sustainable restoration".

In connection with the above, for predicting the socio-economic development of society, the classification of natural resources according to the degree of their exhaustion is of greatest interest:

The resources are practically unlimited (inexhaustible), i.e. continuously replenished from the outside and not needing their reproduction by man (solar energy, wind energy, ebb and flow, etc.);

Exhaustible resources, including:

Renewable (resources of the biosphere), but in need of measures for protection and reproduction;

Non-renewable and without substitutes (most types of mineral resources);

Endangered flora and fauna that require special protection.

Natural resources serve to meet the needs of society for food, heat, energy and construction materials. In addition, they are used for ecological, health-improving, spiritual-aesthetic and cultural-educational purposes. Natural resources are subdivided into material and environmental.

Material resources are sources of energy and products directly consumed by the population, or used by enterprises as raw materials. Material resources include mineral and biotic resources, as well as resources generated by solar energy and gravitational forces. Economic use of all minerals of the earth's crust involves their extraction from the depths and further processing.

Mineral resources(minerals) are divided into metallic (ores) and non-metallic. Metal or metal compounds are extracted from ore minerals. Non-metallic minerals are used in raw or processed form in the production of various building materials, phosphorites, rock and potassium salts, etc. Combustible minerals (various coals, oil shale, oil, natural gas) are used as energy fuel or as a raw material for certain industries. Mineral resources are classified as non-renewable resources.

From the standpoint of socio-economic development, of interest are data on the reserves of basic minerals for individual continents, given in tab. 4.4. It is possible that geological exploration will make some adjustments to the picture of the distribution of mineral resources, but the general nature of their distribution is unlikely to change significantly. The revealed amount of mineral resources is not a fixed amount. It is assumed that their volumes and types will constantly change due to scientific and technological progress and in connection with the emergence of new needs.

Table 4.4
Confirmed reserves of the main types of minerals and their location by continent (at the beginning of 1997) * According to the data given by T.V. Averchenko.

Mineral types	Stocks	Countries and continents
		Russia	Europe	Asia	Africa	North America	South and Central America	Australia and Oceania	Total in the world
oil (including condensate)	Total, million tons	21 252,9	2 964,5	97 220,7	10 252,3	10 419,2	12 403,2	560,6	1155073,3
	in% of world reserves	13,7	1,9	62,7	6,6	6,7	8,0	0,4	100
	per capita, t / person	144,58	4,06	27,09	13,17	34,26	26,81	19,0	26,15
natural gas	total, bln m 3	47 380,0	6425,4	61108,8	9 302,2	8 525,6	6 045,4	618,3	1139405,8
	in% of world reserves	33,99	4,61	43,84	6,67	6,12	4,34	0,44	100
	per capita, m 3 / person	322 313	8 809,0	17 027,2	11948,9	2 8035,5	13 068,3	20 959,3	23 509,4
coal	total, million tons	2 00576	2 81846	471 107	130 222	524 501	22 952	116 030	1 747 233
	in% of world reserves	11,48	16,13	26,96	7,45	30,02	1,31	6,64	100
	per capita, t / person	1 364,5	386.4	131,3	167.3	1 724,8	49,6	393,3	294,6
iron ore	total, million tons	57110	37 918	30 360	22 043	28 650	19 429	184,28	213 968
	in% of world reserves	23,9	17,72	14,19	10,3	13,39	9,08	8,61	100
	per capita, m 3 / person	388,7	52,0	8,46	28,3	94,2	42,0	624,7	36,1

TO biotic resources include all living organisms with the exception of humans. They are represented by millions of species, which are usually classified as follows:

Microorganisms;

Plants (wild and cultivated species);

Animals (wild and domestic species).

Biotic resources are renewable resources, which are the main distinctive feature all living organisms. But at the same time, they are depleted. When biotic resources are used, there is a risk of decreasing and disappearing of their reserves, and therefore the consumption of these resources should be carried out on a permanently renewable basis, while maintaining an appropriate balance between natural growth and the level of use of individual species.

According to modern estimates, almost 40% of the net productivity of all plants is used by humans for consumption purposes, either directly (for example, fruits, vegetables, wood fuel, some medicines), or indirectly, after processing them into industrial products (for example, textile fiber, wood, biomass ).

As a result of the continuous increase in the involvement of land and other natural resources in the economic turnover, as well as the pollution of the environment with harmful substances, there is a general trend towards the disappearance of various species of flora and fauna.

For these reasons, biotic resources should be considered as conditionally renewable resources, the future of which largely depends on the state of ecological resources.

TO resources generated by solar energy and gravitational forces, in addition to solar energy, include: hydropower, wave energy, ocean currents and wind. At present, these resources are of limited use and are mainly used for generating electricity. The current exploitation of such resources has minimal consequences for their availability in the future. Currently, about 6% of the total consumption of primary energy resources is accounted for by hydropower. Going forward, however, as technological challenges are addressed and cost barriers are overcome, new energy sources will be used much more widely. In this regard, it should be noted that the total potential of the energy supplied to the Earth is three thousand times higher than the volume of world energy consumption.

Under ecological resources is understood as a set of environment-forming components that ensure ecological balance in the biosphere, and, consequently, the normal environment of human life as a socio-biological being. Environmental resources are part of physical systems that perform a number of basic vital functions. A characteristic feature of these resources is that they mainly provide services in the form of benefits for society as a whole.

Despite the significant difference in the physical characteristics and economic functions of various types of natural resources, most of them are united by the fact that they are integral elements of complex physical and environmental mechanisms, the improper use of which can result in serious irreparable damage.

Taking as a basis the distinction between material and environmental resources, you can further implement them. classification by economic characteristics.

Environmental resources include such resources that can receive waste from human activities: air, water and earth (soil). These resources, along with other functions, act as a reservoir for all generated waste.

Environmental resources such as water and air can also serve as specific material factors of production and consumption processes. Thus, water is consumed by agriculture and urban utilities, industry and other sectors of the economy, and air is used in various industries.

Natural territories and water areas have the ability, without self-destruction, to decompose natural anthropogenic substances, waste and eliminate their harmful effects on life processes. It should be borne in mind that high and low self-purification potentials depend on the type of ecosystems prevailing in a given territory, their stability. (see p. 1.3), development of organic life in soils and water bodies. The lowest self-cleaning potential is characteristic of the tundra zones. (see fig. 1.6).

From the point of view of economics and organization of nature management, natural (natural) resources are:

Natural objects and phenomena used in the present, past and future for direct and indirect consumption, contributing to the creation of material wealth, reproduction labor resources maintaining the living conditions of the population and improving the quality of life;

Bodies and forces of nature (natural goods), the social utility of which changes positively or negatively as a result of human labor activity; are used (or potentially suitable for use) as means of labor (land, waterways, water for irrigation), energy sources (hydropower, nuclear fuel, reserves of fossil fuels, etc.), raw materials (mineral raw materials, forests, resources of technical water), directly as consumer goods (drinking water, wild plants, mushrooms, flowers, fishery products), recreation (places of recreation in nature, their health-improving value), banks of the genetic fund, etc.

The main feature of all types of natural resources is their limitedness. Mankind will be able to survive provided that its needs for the resources of the biosphere, used to create the welfare of the population, do not exceed the maximum possibilities of the biosphere in the return of these benefits, at which its stability will be preserved.

Information about Russia's natural resources is concentrated in departmental cadastres, which are one of the tools for economic regulation of environmental protection. (fig. 4.3).

Rice. 4.3. The main instruments of economic mechanisms for environmental protection

Natural resource inventories - these are collections of economic, environmental, organizational and technical indicators characterizing the quantity and quality of a natural resource, as well as categories of users of natural resources.

Inventories are compiled by type of natural resources. On the basis of their data, the monetary value of the natural resource, the selling price, and the system of measures for its rehabilitation and restoration are determined.

Land Registry includes information on the amount of land, their distribution by category and nature of use, qualitative composition; about the owners, owners, users and tenants of the land. Maintaining a land cadastre is in the competence of Roskomzem - the State Committee for Land Resources and Land Management of the Russian Federation.

Forest inventory conducted by Rosleskhoz - Federal Forestry Service under the Government of the Russian Federation and the corresponding regional bodies. The cadastre contains information on the qualitative and quantitative composition of forests, groups and categories of their protection, on the economic assessment of forests, the legal regime for the use of the forest fund, etc.

Water cadastre contains current and prospective assessments of the state of water bodies and their use, provides for measures to prevent pollution and depletion of water bodies and restore water quality. The state of surface waters and the use of water resources are in the competence of the State Committee for Water Resources of the Russian Federation (Roskomvod).

Mineral Deposits Cadastre includes information about the economic value of each deposit, its mining, economic and environmental conditions.

A kind of inventory of rare animals and plants are Red Books Federation, republics, territories and regions. There are also registers hunting, animals, fish stocks, nature reserves, environmental pollutants, which are maintained by the relevant ministries and departments.

Currently, cadastres and registers of natural resources have a number of significant shortcomings:

Inventories do not cover all natural resources and objects;

Information about natural resources is mainly of a departmental nature;

The procedure for the use of departmental information, which forms the basis of cadastres, has not been determined; many data are closed even for their use by state authorities and administration in the regions; there is also no uniform procedure for payment or free access to this information for interested organizations;

Indicators of individual inventories are difficult to compare or completely incomparable with each other in terms of content. Even having data on individual natural resources on a separate territory, it is very difficult to draw a conclusion about the relationship between the possibilities of their use; forms of storage and updating of information are also different and incomparable (type of media, scale, compression ratio, software, etc.);

In most sectoral inventories, there are no indicators to assess the socio-economic efficiency of resource use in a given territory;

The existing inventories practically do not provide for the possibility of re-evaluating natural resources when the socio-economic conditions of production and consumption change;

When assessing natural resources, the environmental factor is not sufficiently taken into account.

The presence of the listed disadvantages requires the creation of a more perfect information base for making managerial decisions in the field of protection, reproduction and use of natural resources, as well as the protection of architectural monuments.

The information support system should be formed and developed within the framework of integrated territorial cadastre of natural resources - KTKPR, which is a state collection of data on natural resources and natural objects in a territorial context, necessary for making managerial decisions in the field of socio-economic development of territories, taxation and ensuring rational use of natural resources.

The creation of such a system should take place on the basis of a single organizational, methodological, metrological, regulatory and programmatic approach to the formation of a database, interaction and coordination of all departmental and regional services, and at the first stage without destroying the existing federal, territorial and administrative departmental structures in this area.

KTKPR are formed to make the following decisions in the environmental and resource sphere:

Development and placement of productive forces;

Conducting functional zoning of the territory to establish environmentally sound regimes and regulation of the use of the territory's resources;

Ensuring economic and environmental security;

Implementation of investment target programs for the development of individual territories;

Taxation;

Delineation of competence for the management of natural objects between the Russian Federation, the constituent entities of the Federation and local governments;

Solving a set of issues related to the rational use of natural resources.

The structure of the KTKPR consists of several blocks:

The address and legal block contains information on the spatial distribution of resources, their property status, subjects of ownership, disposal and use of natural resources (objects);

The ecological block contains data on the state of the environment, environmental restrictions on emissions (discharges) of pollutants into the environment and other types of anthropogenic impacts, quotas for the withdrawal of certain types of natural resources, conditions under which the use (exploitation) of natural resources is allowed; the block of quantitative and qualitative assessments combines databases on the quantity and quality of natural resources;

Block of economic assessment of certain types of natural resources;

Consolidated block of economic assessment natural resource potential territory;

Block for forecasting the state and assessing the natural resource potential of the territory.

The following are subject to accounting and assessment in integrated cadastres of natural resources (objects):

Resources of lands used in economic activity and social sphere, reserve and unused land areas;

Subsoil resources - minerals of mineral and organic origin;

Surface and underground waters, natural and artificial water bodies;

Resources of flora and fauna (including forest resources and woodlands, hunting and economic resources and hunting grounds, commercial resources of inland water bodies, commercial resources of the seas and shelf);

Resources (natural objects) for recreational and socio-cultural purposes;

Specially Protected natural areas(reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and natural monuments), geological formations and biological objects (rare and endangered species of animals and plants);

Natural resources (natural objects) of settlements with enterprises and organizations on their territories;

Secondary resources and disposal sites for production and consumption waste;

Climatic resources of the territories;

Resources generated by solar energy and gravitational forces.

Natural resources are accounted for by objects and unified classification units adopted for each type of natural resources. As the level of accounting increases, the classification units are enlarged in accordance with the tasks for the territorial management of natural resources and environmental protection.

The KTKPR information should be presented in the form of geographical and other maps, tables and descriptions on electronic and paper media and unified in terms of the scale of maps, standards for data collection, types of classifications, requirements of use regimes and methods of socio-economic assessment.

The list of mandatory cadastral indicators for the characteristics of each type of natural resource is developed by the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation in conjunction with other federal executive bodies in the field of nature management and environmental protection and is approved by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia. The list of additional cadastral indicators required for territorial administration is established by the state administration bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation, depending on the natural resource and economic specifics of a particular territory.

Natural resources, their classification

In its most general form, in relation to a person:

« Resources are something extracted from the natural environment to satisfy one's needs and desires. " (Miller, 1993).

Human needs can be divided into material and spiritual.

Natural resources in their direct use in some part satisfy the spiritual needs of a person, for example, aesthetic ("the beauty of nature"), recreational, etc. But their main purpose is to satisfy material needs, i.e. creation material goods.

Natural (natural) resources - these are natural objects and phenomena that a person uses to create material goods that ensure not only the maintenance of the existence of mankind, but also a gradual increase quality of life.

Classification of natural resources

The classification is based on three criteria: by source of origin, by use in production and by the degree of depletion of resources.

According to sources of origin resources are subdivided into biological, mineral and energy resources.

Biological resources - these are all living environment-forming components of the biosphere: producers, consumers and decomposers with genetic material enclosed in them. They are sources of material and spiritual benefits for people.

These include fishing grounds, cultivated plants, domestic animals, scenic landscapes, microorganisms i.e. this includes plant resources, animal resources, etc. Genetic resources are of particular importance.

Mineral resources - these are all useful material components of the lithosphere used in economic activities as mineral raw materials or energy sources.

Mineral raw materials can be ore if metals are extracted from it, and non-metallic - if non-metallic components (phosphorus, etc.) are extracted, or used as building materials.

If mineral resources are used as fuel (coal, oil, gas, oil shale, peat, wood , atomic energy) and at the same time as a source of energy in engines for generating steam and electricity, they are called fuel and energy resources.

Energy resources is called the aggregate of the energy of the Sun and space, atomic energy, fuel and energy, thermal and other sources of energy.

The second sign by which resources are classified is on their use in production. These include the following resources:

- land fund - all lands within the country and the world, belonging by their purpose to the following categories: agricultural, settlements, non-agricultural purposes, industry, transport, mining, etc.), the world land fund - 13.4 billion hectares;

- forest fund - a part of the land fund of the Earth on which a forest grows or can grow, allocated for agriculture and the organization of natural specially protected areas; it is part of biological resources;

- water resources - the amount of ground and surface water that can be used for various purposes in the economy (fresh water resources are of particular importance, the main source of which is river waters);

- hydropower resources, what the river, the tidal activity of the ocean, etc .;

- fauna resources - the number of inhabitants of waters, forests, sandbanks that a person can use without disturbing the ecological balance;

- minerals (ore, non-metallic, fuel and energy resources) - a natural accumulation of minerals in the earth's crust, which can be used in the economy, and the accumulation of minerals forms their deposits, the reserves of which should be of industrial importance.

From an environmental point of view, the classification of resources according to the third criterion is important - according to the degree of exhaustion.

Depletion of natural resources from an ecological point of view, this is a discrepancy between the safe standards for the withdrawal of a natural resource from natural systems and subsoil and the needs of mankind (country, region, enterprise, etc.).

Figure 1. shows a scheme for classifying resources according to the degree of depletion.

Inexhaustible resources - directly solar energy, and the natural forces caused by it, for example, wind and tides, exist forever and in unlimited quantities.

Exhaustible resources - have quantitative restrictions, but some of them may be renewable , if there are natural opportunities for this, or even with the help of a person (artificial purification of water, air, increasing soil fertility, restoring the number of wild animals, etc.).

However, a very important group of resources irreplaceable. These include such relics of ancient biospheres as fuel and iron ore, as well as a number of metal ores of intraterrestrial (endogenous) origin. All of them have limited reserves in the lithosphere. These resources are finite and non-renewable.

Natural resources
Inexhaustible	Exhaustible
	Renewable	Nonrenewable
Solar energy	Fresh air	Fossil fuel (coal, oil)
The energy of the ebb and flow of the sea	Fresh water	Metallic mineral raw materials (iron, gold, etc.)
Energy of the earth's interior	Fertile soil	Non-metallic mineral raw materials (clay, sand, phosphates, etc.
Wind energy	Plants
Flowing water	Animals
Atmospheric air

Rice. 1. Classification of natural resources according to the degree of depletion

Of course, a person has the ability to replace the most scarce resources with more widespread and large reserves. But, as a rule, just as when replacing some ecological resources (for example, food) in ecosystems with others, the quality decreases.

Thus, one of the most important limiting factors for the survival of a person as a biological species is the limitedness and exhaustion of the most important natural resources for him. But a person is also a social being, therefore, the nature of the use of resources is very important for the development and survival of human society.

Currently, humanity has access to climatic and space resources, the resources of the oceans and continents. Their quantitative consumption is constantly growing, their “assortment” is growing, often without taking into account resource availability.

Resource availability - it is the ratio between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use. It is expressed either by the number of years for which a given resource should be sufficient, or by its reserves per capita.

The indicators of resource availability are primarily influenced by the wealth or poverty of the territory with natural resources. But no less important are the scales of their consumption (for example, mining), therefore the very concept of resource availability is socio-economic.

Thus, resource availability cannot be judged only by the size of reserves, but the intensity of extraction (consumption by society) must be taken into account.

The consumption of natural resources is primarily due to the fact that a person, trying to “remove” the influence of limiting natural factors, in order to survive and win the competition, began to create his own anthropogenic ecosystems.