9. Natural resources and their classification. 3
26. Raw materials, their economic and complex use. 4
Non-renewable resources .. 4
Renewable resources .. 4
41. Rational use and protection of water resources in agriculture 4
53. The legal aspect of the protection of subsoil. 4
63. Protection of endangered and rare species of animals. Red Data Book of Ukraine ………………………………………………………………………………… 4
76. Sovereign management of nature management and environmental protection ……… 4
List of used literature .. 4

9. Natural resources and their classification

Natural resources ( natural resources) - elements of nature, part of the entire set of natural conditions and the most important components of the natural environment that are used (or can be used) at a given level of development productive forces to meet the diverse needs of society and social production.
Natural resources are the main object of nature management, during which they are exploited and further processed. The main types of natural resources are solar energy, internal heat, water, land and mineral resources- are means of labor. Plant resources, animal world, drinking water, wild plants - are commodities.
Due to the huge volume of natural substances and energy used, the problem of providing mankind with natural resources is global. To prevent the depletion of natural resources, it is necessary to rational and comprehensive use of natural resources, to search for new sources of raw materials, fuel and energy.
The classification of natural resources is understood as the division of the totality of objects, objects and phenomena of the natural environment into groups according to functionally significant characteristics. Taking into account the natural origin of resources, as well as their enormous economic importance, the following classifications of natural resources have been developed.
1. Natural (genetic) classification - classification of natural resources by natural groups: mineral (minerals), water, land (including soil), plant, (including forest), fauna, climatic, resources energy of natural processes (solar radiation, internal heat of the Earth, wind energy, etc.). The resources of flora and fauna are often grouped under the concept of biological resources.
2. The ecological classification of natural resources is based on the signs of depletion and renewal of resource reserves. The concept of exhaustion is used when taking into account the reserves of natural resources and the volumes of their possible economic withdrawal. Resources are allocated on this basis:
o inexhaustible - the use of which by a person does not lead to an apparent depletion of their reserves now or in the foreseeable future (solar energy, internal heat, energy of water, air);
o harvested non-renewable - the continuous use of which can reduce them to a level at which further exploitation becomes economically impractical, while they are incapable of self-healing in terms commensurate with the terms of consumption (for example, mineral resources);
o drawable renewable - resources that are characterized by the ability to restore (through reproduction or other natural cycles), for example, flora, fauna, water resources. In this subgroup, resources are allocated with extremely slow rates of renewal (fertile land, forest high quality wood).
3. Economic, when natural resources are classified into different groups in terms of the possibilities of economic use:
o according to the technical possibilities of exploitation, natural resources are allocated: real - used at a given level of development of productive forces; potential - established on the basis of theoretical calculations and preliminary work and including, in addition to precisely established technically available reserves, also the part that cannot currently be mastered according to technical capabilities;
o according to the economic feasibility of replacement, distinguish between replaceable and irreplaceable resources. For example, fuel and energy resources are referred to as replaceable (they can be replaced by other energy sources). The indispensable resources include atmospheric air resources, fresh water, etc.
o An important role in the development of the economy is played by the degree of knowledge of natural resources: the structure of the soil, the amount and structure of minerals, wood reserves and its annual growth, etc. Among natural resources, mineral raw materials play a special role in the life of society, and the degree of provision with natural resources reflects the economic level the state. Depending on geological knowledge mineral resources are subdivided into the following categories: A - reserves, explored and studied with the utmost detail, exact boundaries of occurrence, and which can be transferred to exploitation. B - reserves, explored and studied in detail, ensuring the identification of the main conditions of occurrence, without an accurate display of the spatial position of the field. C1 - reserves, explored and studied in detail, providing clarification in general terms of the conditions of occurrence. C2 - reserves, explored, studied and estimated in advance by single samples and samples.
Moreover :
According to their economic value, minerals are divided into balance sheets, the exploitation of which is advisable in this moment, and off-balance ones, the operation of which is impractical due to the low content of the useful substance, the great depth of occurrence, the peculiarities of the working conditions, etc., but which in the future can be developed.
· Among the classifications of natural resources, reflecting their economic significance and economic role, the classification according to the direction and types of economic use is especially often used. The main criterion for subdividing resources in it is their assignment to different sectors of material production or non-production sphere. On this basis, natural resources are divided into resources of industrial and agricultural production.
o Resource group industrial production includes all types of natural raw materials used by industry. Due to the diversified nature of industrial production, the types of natural resources are differentiated as follows:
§ Energy, which include a variety of types of resources currently used for energy production:
§ combustible minerals(oil, gas, coal, bituminous shale, etc.)
§ hydropower resources (river water energy, tidal energy, etc.);
§ sources of bioenergy (fuel wood, biogas from agricultural waste.);
§ sources of nuclear energy (uranium and radioactive elements).
§ Non-energy resources representing raw materials for various industries or participating in production according to its technical characteristics:
§ minerals that do not belong to the group of caustobiolites (ore and non-metallic);
§ water used for industrial production;
§ land occupied by industrial facilities and infrastructure;
§ forest resources of industrial importance;
§ biological resources of industrial importance.
o Resources of agricultural production combine those types of resources that are involved in the creation of agricultural products:
§ aggro climatic resources heat and moisture necessary for the production of cultivated plants and grazing;
§ soil and land - the earth and its upper layer - the soil, which has a unique property to produce biomass;
§ plant biological resources - food resources;
§ water resources - water used for irrigation, etc.
The resources of the non-production sphere (non-production consumption - direct or indirect) include resources taken from the natural environment (wild animals representing the objects of commercial hunting, medicinal raw materials of natural origin), as well as resources of the recreational economy, protected areas, etc.
The combination of natural and economic classifications makes it possible to identify the possibility of multidirectional use of various natural resource groups, as well as their replaceability, draw conclusions about the tasks of rational use and protection of certain species. According to the relationship of uses, there is the following classification:
o resources of unambiguous use;
o resources for multipurpose use, incl. interrelated (integrated) use (water resources), mutually exclusive (competing) use (land resources).
Other groups of natural resources can also be identified. For example, sources of homogeneous resources (mineral deposits, land, timber resources, etc.) are subdivided according to the amount of reserves and economic significance. Conditionally distinguish:
The largest (of national importance),
Large (interdistrict and regional significance),
· Small (local).
Private classifications of natural resources are also being developed, reflecting the specifics of their natural properties and areas of economic use. An example of this type is various amelioration classifications, groups of rivers according to the degree of flow regulation, etc. The geological and economic classification of minerals according to the main directions of their use in industry is widely used:
· Fuel and energy raw materials (oil, gas, coal, uranium, etc.);
· Ferrous, alloying and refractory metals (ores of iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, etc.);
Noble metals (gold, silver, platinoids),
· Chemical and agronomic raw materials (potassium salts, phosphorites, apatites, etc.);
· Technical raw materials (diamonds, asbestos, graphite, etc.).
In market conditions of the economy, the classification of natural resources is of practical interest, taking into account, in particular, the nature of trade in natural raw materials. For example, you can highlight:
Resources having strategic importance trade in which should be limited, since it leads to the undermining of the defense power of the state (uranium ore and other radioactive substances);
· Resources of wide export value and providing the main inflow of foreign exchange earnings (oil, diamonds, gold, etc.);
Resources of the domestic market, which, as a rule, are ubiquitous, for example, mineral raw materials, etc.
Separate structural schemes for the classification of natural resources are shown in Fig. 1,2 and 3.
Figure 1. Classification of natural resources by origin

Figure 2. Classification of natural resources based on exhaustion

Figure 3. Classification of natural resources by types of economic use

26. Raw materials, their economic and complex use

Modern industry, especially its branches such as chemical synthesis, smelting of light metals, is characterized by an increased demand for energy, water and raw materials. To smelt 1 ton of aluminum, it is necessary to spend tens of times more water than to produce 1 ton of steel, and to produce 1 ton of artificial fiber, it is necessary to use hundreds of times more water than to produce the same amount of cotton fabric. Oil and gas have become the main sources of energy and at the same time important raw materials chemical industry... These circumstances explain the ever-increasing exploitation of oil and gas fields... The production of each new synthetic product entails "chain reactions" in technology - for example, a large amount of chlorine is required for the synthesis of plastics, the production of chlorine involves the use of mercury as a catalyst, and all together - huge expenditures of energy, water and oxygen. Almost all chemical elements that exist on Earth are involved in modern industry.
The question arose before mankind: how long will the necessary natural resources be sufficient for it? Gone are the days when it seemed that the Earth's resources were inexhaustible. The very division of natural resources into inexhaustible and exhaustible is becoming more and more conventional. More and more types of resources are moving from the first category to the second.Now we are already thinking about the possibility of depleting atmospheric oxygen reserves, and in the future the same question may arise even about the resources of solar energy, although its flow still seems to us practically inexhaustible.
There are different forecasts regarding the future of our natural resources. Of course, they should be considered very indicative. When developing such forecasts, one must proceed, on the one hand, from an assessment of the prospects for population growth and production and, accordingly, the needs of society, and, on the other, from the availability of reserves of each resource. However, it would be risky to prolong the current trend of population and production growth far into the future. Thus, it must be assumed that as living standards rise in developing countries, which account for the bulk of population growth, overall growth should slow down. In addition, scientific and technological progress will undoubtedly continue in the direction of searching for more economical, resource-saving technologies, which will gradually reduce the need for many natural sources of production.
Based on the foregoing, one should expect, at least in the coming decades, a further increase in demand for a wide variety of natural resources. When assessing their reserves, it is important to distinguish between two large groups of resources - non-renewable and renewable. The first ones are practically not replenished, and their number steadily decreases with use. This includes mineral resources as well as land resources limited by the size of the earth's surface area. Renewable resources are either capable of self-healing (biological), or are continuously supplied to the Earth from the outside (solar energy), or, being in a continuous cycle, can be reused (water). Of course, renewable resources, like non-renewable ones, are not infinite, but their renewable part (annual income or growth) can be constantly used.
If we turn to the main types of the world's natural resources, then in the very general view we get the following picture. The main type of energy resources is still mineral fuel - oil, gas, coal. These are non-renewable, and at the current rate of growth of their production, they can be exhausted in 80-140 years. True, the share of these sources should be reduced due to the development of atomic energy based on the use of "heavy" nuclear fuel - fissile isotopes of uranium and thorium. But even these resources are non-renewable: according to some sources, uranium will last only for several decades.
The importance of natural resources for the life of society cannot in any way diminish for the simple reason that they remain the only source of material production. At the same time, the less production is associated with local resources, the more its dependence on remote sources increases and the wider the range of such sources, many of which acquire not only national but also global significance. Let us recall the role of oil and gas fields in the Tyumen North in the economy of our country or the oil of the Persian Gulf in the world economy. We add that there are such industries National economy, and above all rural, which generally cannot "emancipate" from the local natural environment and will always be tied to it.
All types of natural resources - thermal, water, mineral, biological, soil - are associated with certain components of the natural complex (geosystem) and constitute a consumable part of these components. The ability to be consumed is a specific property of natural resources that distinguishes them from natural conditions. The latter include permanent properties of natural complexes that are not used to obtain a useful product, but which have a significant positive or negative effect on the development and location of production (for example, temperature and water regime, winds, relief, bearing capacity of soils, permafrost, seismicity).
It is important to distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources. Some resources are renewed due to their constant influx from Space (solar energy), others - due to the continuous circulation of matter in geographic envelope(fresh water), and finally, the third - due to the ability to self-reproduction (biological resources). Non-renewable resources include mineral resources.

Non-renewable resources

The resources of the earth's interior are considered non-renewable. Strictly speaking, many of them can be renewed in the course of geological cycles, but the duration of these cycles, determined by hundreds of millions of years, is incommensurate with the stages of development of society and the rate of consumption of mineral resources.
The planet's irreplaceable resources can be divided into two large groups:
a) Non-renewable mineral resources.
More than a hundred non-combustible materials are mined from crust currently. Minerals are formed and modified as a result of the processes that occur during the formation of earth's rocks over many millions of years. The use of a mineral resource includes several stages. The first is the discovery of a fairly rich deposit. Then - the extraction of the mineral by organizing some form of its extraction. The third stage is processing the ore to remove impurities and converting it into the desired chemical form. The latter is the use of the mineral for the production of various products.
The development of mineral deposits, the deposits of which are located close to the earth's surface, are carried out by surface mining, arranging open pits, open pit mining by creating horizontal strips, or mining using dredging equipment. When minerals are located far underground, they are extracted by underground mining.
Extraction, processing and use of any non-combustible mineral resource causes disturbance of the soil cover and erosion, pollutes air and water. Underground mining is more dangerous and costly than surface mining, but it is much less likely to disturb the soil cover. In underground mining, water pollution can occur due to mine acid drainage. In most cases, the areas where the extraction is carried out can be restored, but this is an expensive process. Mining and wasteful use of products made from fossil fuels and wood also generate large amounts of solid waste.
Estimating the amount of a useful mineral resource actually available in terms of extraction is a very expensive and complicated process. And besides, it cannot be determined with great precision. Mineral Resource Reserves are categorized as Indicated Resources and Undiscovered Resources. In turn, each of these categories is divided into reserves, that is, those minerals that can be extracted with profit at existing prices with the existing mining technology, and resources - all discovered and undetected resources, including those that cannot be extracted with profit at current prices and existing technology. Most of the published estimates of specific non-renewable resources relate to reserves.
When 80% of the reserves or estimated resource of a material has been recovered and used, the resource is considered depleted, as the remaining 20% ​​is usually not profitable to recover. The amount of the recovered resource and thus the time of depletion can be increased by increasing the estimated reserves, if high prices force the search for new deposits, the development of new production technologies, an increase in the share of recycling and secondary use, or to reduce the level of resource consumption. Some economically depleted resources manage to find a replacement.
To increase reserves, environmentalists propose increasing the recycling and reuse of non-renewable mineral resources and reducing unnecessary waste of such resources. Recycling, reuse and waste reduction require less energy for their implementation and less damage to soil and pollute water and air than the use of primary resources.
Environmentalists are urging industrialized countries to move from disposable, high waste to low waste. This will require, in addition to recycling and reuse, also the attraction of economic incentives, specific actions of governments and people, as well as changes in the behavior and lifestyle of the world's population.
b) Non-renewable energy resources.
The main factors that determine the degree of use of any energy source are its estimated reserves, net output of useful energy, cost, potential hazardous impacts on environmental harm, as well as social consequences and impact on state security. Each energy source has advantages and disadvantages.
Conventional crude oil can be easily transported, it is a relatively cheap and widely used fuel, and has a high net useful energy yield. However, the available oil reserves may be depleted in 40-80 years; when oil is burned, a large amount of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, which can lead to global climate change.
Unconventional heavy oil, the remainder of conventional oil, as well as from oil shale and sand, can increase oil reserves. But it is expensive, has a low net energy yield, requires a lot of water to process, and has a more harmful effect on the environment than conventional oil.
Conventional natural gas generates more heat and burns more completely than other fossil fuels, is a versatile and relatively cheap fuel, and has a high net energy yield. But its reserves can be depleted in 40-100 years, and when it is burned, carbon dioxide is formed.
Coal is the world's most abundant fossil fuel. It has a high net useful energy yield for electricity generation and high temperature heat generation for industrial processes, and is relatively cheap. But coal is extremely dirty, its mining is dangerous and harmful to the environment, as well as burning, if there are no expensive special devices for monitoring the level of air pollution; emits more carbon dioxide per unit of energy received than other fossil fuels, and it is inconvenient to use it for traffic and heating houses, unless it is first converted into gaseous or liquid form. Significant disturbance of the soil cover during extraction.
The heat hidden in the earth's crust, or geothermal energy, is converted into non-renewable underground deposits of dry steam, water vapor and hot water in different places of the planet. If these deposits are located close enough to earth surface, the heat obtained during their development can be used for space heating and power generation. They can provide energy for 100-200 years to the regions located near the fields, and at a reasonable price. They have an average net energy output and do not emit carbon dioxide. Although this type of energy source also brings a lot of inconvenience to mining and considerable environmental pollution.
The nuclear fission reaction is also a source of energy, and a very promising one. The main advantages of this energy source are that nuclear reactors do not emit carbon dioxide or other substances harmful to the environment, and the degree of water and soil pollution is within acceptable limits, provided that the entire nuclear fuel cycle is proceeding normally. The disadvantages include the fact that the cost of equipment for servicing this energy source is very high; conventional nuclear power plants can only be used to generate electricity; there is a risk of a major accident; net useful energy output is low; storage facilities for radioactive waste have not been developed. Due to the above disadvantages, this energy source is currently not widely used. Therefore, an ecologically clean future belongs to alternative energy sources.
Both types of these resources are equally important to us, but the division is introduced because these two large groups of resources are very different from each other.

Renewable resources

Renewable resources deserve special attention. The whole mechanism of their renewal is, in essence, a manifestation of the functioning of geosystems due to the absorption and transformation of the radiant energy of the Sun - this is the primary source of all renewable resources. Therefore, in their location, they are subject to universal geographic patterns - zoning, sectorality, and high-altitude tiering. It follows from this that the study of the formation and distribution of renewable resources is directly related to the field of physical geography. Renewable resources should be considered as resources of the future: unlike non-renewable ones, they are not doomed to complete extinction with rational use, and their reproduction can be controlled to a certain extent (for example, by means of reclamation of forests, it is possible to increase their productivity and wood yield).
It should be noted that anthropogenic interference in the biological cycle strongly undermines the natural process of renewal of biological resources (and derivatives from them). Therefore, as a result of economic activity, real biological resources are usually lower than potential ones. Thus, forests on Earth have been destroyed over vast areas, and in the preserved forests the annual growth of timber is often 3–4 times less than in undisturbed stands; irrational use of natural pastures leads to a decrease in their productivity. The resources of free oxygen in the atmosphere are also derived from the biological cycle. Their replenishment in the process of photosynthesis is steadily decreasing, and the man-made consumption (mainly when burning fossil fuel) increases.
Consider renewable resources:
a) Free oxygen.
It is renewed mainly in the process of plant photosynthesis; Under natural conditions, the balance of oxygen is maintained by its consumption for the processes of respiration, decay, and the formation of carbonates. Already now, mankind uses about 10% (and according to some estimates - even more) of the incoming part of the oxygen balance in the atmosphere. True, the decrease in atmospheric oxygen has not yet been felt even with precise instruments. But under the condition of an annual 5% increase in oxygen consumption for industrial and energy needs, its content in the atmosphere will decrease, according to F.F.Davitaia's calculations, by 2/3, i.e. it will become critical for human life in 180 years, and with an annual growth of 10% - in 100 years.
b) Fresh water resources.
Fresh water on Earth is annually renewed in the form atmospheric precipitation, the volume of which is 520 thousand km 3. However, in practice, in water management calculations and forecasts, one should proceed only from that part of the precipitation that flows down the earth's surface, forming watercourses. This will amount to 37 - 38 thousand km 3. Currently, 3.6 thousand km 3 of runoff is diverted for household needs in the world, but in fact more is used, since here it is necessary to add that part of the runoff that is spent on diluting the polluted waters; in total, this will amount to 8.2 thousand km 3, that is, more than 1/5 of the world's river flow. According to M. I. Lvovich, by 2000 the world demand for water will exceed the annual volume of runoff, if the principles of water use do not change. If the discharge of wastewater is completely stopped, then the annual water consumption will be about 7 thousand km 3, but this water will no longer return to the rivers, i.e. in production). Additional reserves of water resources - desalination of sea water, the use of icebergs.
Large quantities of fresh water are contaminated by human activities. Let's consider this using the example of Moscow:
Moscow is the first city in Russia in terms of size and importance, and because of its size, a huge number of industrial enterprises are concentrated in it. The volume of industrial effluents defies any description. Thermal pollution plays an important role along with industrial effluents. An increase in groundwater temperature affects the surrounding nature. Below the city, the Moskva River almost never freezes; it has turned into a huge drainage ditch for human life. The sources of water supply for Moscow are the Moscow River and its tributaries, as well as groundwater, such as those that form in the basin of the river. Moscow due to surface runoff, and the waters of deep horizons, not associated with surface runoff.
Groundwater reserves in the Moscow region are insufficient for stable provision of the city's household and drinking needs, in connection with which surface sources are used.
Within the city, the water fund is represented by the river. Moscow and more than 70 small rivers and streams with a total length of 165.0 km. A completely open channel has been preserved at seven rivers: Yauza, Setun, Skhodnya, Ramenki, Ochakovka, Ichki and Chechera. The rest of the rivers are partially or completely enclosed in collector systems and serve to divert surface runoff. In addition to contaminated surface runoff, the quality of rivers is negatively affected by the discharge of insufficiently treated wastewater from industrial enterprises and city aeration stations.

Below the confluence of the Moscow-Volga canal into the r. Moscow, the flow rate of the river is as follows: 5 cubic meters. m / s - flow rate of the river. Moscow below the Rublevsky water intake; - 30-35 cubic meters m / s - design water flow rate from the Moscow-Volga canal; 10 cubic meters m / s - surface runoff (from the tributaries of the Moskva river within the city limits); 66 cc m / s waste water from the city sewerage, discharged into the river. Moscow; 5 cubic meters m / s - wastewater from industrial enterprises entering the river in addition to citywide sewage networks.
River basin Moscow within the city of Moscow is under the influence industrial complex that has a significant effect on the change chemical composition water as p. Moscow and its tributaries. In the capital, there are about 30 enterprises (not counting the CHP and aeration stations), supplying from 41 thousand to 39850 thousand cubic meters. m / year of waste water in the river Skhodnya, Setun, Yauza, Pekhorka, Moscow, etc. In general, the r. Moscow within the city of Moscow receives up to 1,767,540 thousand cubic meters. m / year of industrial and domestic wastewater from leading industries based in the region.
Surface runoff from the city's territory is formed due to melted snow and rainwater, as well as irrigation and washing waters. In the districts of Moscow, the value of the runoff modulus varies within 5.64 (Zheleznodorozhny district) - 15.0 l / s sq. Km (Sverdlovsk region). The average flow module for the city of Moscow is 9 l / s sq. km. In general, there is an increase in the flow modulus from the outskirts of the city to the center. Surface runoff from the territory of the city is not cleared of pollution and directly enters the water bodies, carrying with it a large amount of organic, suspended solids and oil products. In general, in Moscow during the year with surface runoff, 3840 tons of oil products, 452080 tons of suspended solids, 173280 tons of chlorides, 18460 tons of organic matter (in terms of BOD) are received. As a result, oil products enter the city's water bodies with surface runoff 1.8 times, and suspended solids almost 24 times more than with waste water from enterprises. Most of the pollution: oil products - 63%, suspended solids - 75%, organic matter - 64%, chlorides - 95%, enters the river. Moscow with surface runoff in winter and spring.
Historically, there has been a strong custom to locate landfills in spent quarries and ravines, that is, as close as possible to groundwater; to locate factories, treatment facilities, filtration fields, warehouses - in river valleys, i.e. where natural protection of groundwater is often lacking.
c) Biological resources.
They are made up of plant and animal mass, the one-time supply of which on Earth is measured in the order of 2.4 10 12 tons (in terms of dry matter). The annual increase in biomass in the world (i.e. biological productivity) is approximately 2.3 10 11 tons. The bulk of the Earth's biomass (about 4/5) falls on forest vegetation, which gives more than 1/3 of the total annual increase in living matter ... Human activities have led to a significant reduction in the total biomass and biological productivity of the Earth. True, by replacing part of the former forest areas with arable lands and pastures, people gained in the qualitative composition of biological products and were able to provide food and important technical raw materials (fiber, leather, etc.) to the growing population of the Earth.
Food resources make up no more than 1% of the total biological productivity of land and ocean and no more than 20% of all agricultural products. Taking into account population growth and the need to provide adequate nutrition for the entire population of the Earth by 2000, the production of crop products should be increased at least 2 times, and livestock products - 3 times. This means that the production of primary (plant) biological products, including feed for animals, it is necessary to increase at least 3-4 times. Calculations for the expansion of cultivated land are unlikely to have serious grounds, since the reserves of suitable areas for this are extremely limited. Obviously, a way out should be sought in the intensification of agriculture, including the development of irrigated agriculture, mechanization, selection, etc., as well as in the rational use of the biological resources of the Ocean. The necessary conditions and resources are available, but the calculations of some authors on the possibility of feeding tens and hundreds of billions and even several trillions of people on Earth cannot be regarded as anything other than utopian.
Among other biological resources, wood is of the greatest importance. Now on the exploited forest areas, which make up 1/3 of the entire forest land area, the annual timber harvest (2.2 billion m 3) is approaching the annual growth. Meanwhile, the demand for timber will grow. Further exploitation of forests should be carried out only within the framework of their renewable part, without affecting the "fixed capital", that is, the area of ​​forests should not decrease, felling should be accompanied by reforestation. In addition, it is necessary to increase the productivity of forests through land reclamation, to use wood raw materials more rationally and, as far as possible, to replace it with other materials.
Prospects for solving problems associated with exhaustion land resources, can hardly be reduced to fantastic projects of resettlement of people in high towers, on floating platforms, at the bottom of the Ocean and in the depths of the earth's crust. Some authors justify the inevitability of such decisions by extrapolating the current population growth rates to an indefinitely distant future. With such a hypothetical situation, in 700 years, every inhabitant of our planet would have only 1 m2 of area. However, there is no basis for such extrapolations.
The realistic path, first of all, presupposes the restructuring of the existing land use on a scientific basis, that is, the rational organization of the territory. The optimal social function must be determined for each site. Of course, the rational organization of the territory presupposes both the reclamation of lands disturbed by previous economic use, and the intensification of agriculture, and a thoughtful approach to the creation of reservoirs, and much more.
As can be seen from all of the above, the problems associated with raw materials are very acute in our time. Resource reserves are depleted. These are mainly energy resources. As a consequence, it is necessary to pay attention to renewable energy sources. Among them, "white coal" - the energy of water streams, is now of the greatest practical importance, however, the full use of the world's hydropower resources could provide only half of today's electricity needs. The largest renewable energy source is the rays of the sun. In theory, it is possible to "capture" almost as much solar heat annually as is contained in all fossil fuels. However, in practice, this is impracticable due to the low flux density of the sun's rays: solar power plants require large areas. The situation is similar with the energy of tides, wind and internal heat. The use of these sources is effective only in certain favorable local conditions (on coasts with especially high tides, in areas with stable strong winds, in places of accumulation of hot springs, etc.). The greatest potential lies in the use of "light" nuclear fuel - the isotope of hydrogen deuterium (by fusing helium nuclei from it). Although this source is also essentially non-renewable, it is practically inexhaustible, since the full use of thermonuclear energy would exceed the effect of all other real energy resources by millions of times. The use of "light" nuclear fuel will become possible when ways of controlling the thermonuclear reaction are found.
There is also a danger of wasting non-energy resources: biological, mineral, fresh water, free oxygen. The way out of this problem can be the recycling of waste, the economical use of water, the transition to more durable and lightweight materials (carbon fiber reinforced plastics).
The main thing is that people know about this problem and try to solve it, and not sit idly by.

1. Rational use and protection of water resources in agriculture

Improving the efficiency of environmental protection measures is associated, first of all, with the widespread introduction of resource-saving, low-waste and waste-free technological processes, reducing air pollution and water bodies.
Environmental protection is a very multifaceted problem, the solution of which is dealt with, in particular, by engineering and technical workers of almost all specialties that are associated with economic activities v settlements and on industrial enterprises, which can be a source of pollution mainly air and aquatic environment.
The Water Code of Ukraine regulates legal relations with the aim of ensuring the conservation, scientific substantiation, rational use of water for the needs of the population and economic sectors, restoration of water resources, protection of water from pollution and depletion, avoiding the harmful effects of water and eliminating its consequences, improving the state of water bodies, and also protection of the rights of enterprises, institutions, organizations and citizens to use water. The water fund of Ukraine includes all water bodies on the territory of Ukraine. It includes: surface waters(lakes), streams (rivers, streams), artificial reservoirs (reservoirs, ponds) and canals; groundwater and sources; internal sea ​​waters and the territorial sea.
Violation of water legislation entails disciplinary, administrative, civil or criminal liability.

53. Legal aspect of subsoil protection

Subsoil is a section of the earth's crust located under the surface of the land and the bottom of water bodies; extends to depths available for geological exploration and development. Mineral resources are the exclusive property of the people of Ukraine and are transferred only for use.
The State Subsoil Fund covers both subsoil areas that are used and subsoil areas that are not involved in use, including the continental shelf and the exclusive marine economic zone.
Mineral deposits are accumulations of mineral substances in the depths, on the surface of the earth, in sources of water and gases, at the bottom of reservoirs, which in terms of quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence are acceptable for industrial use.
All mineral deposits, including technogenic ones, with reserves assessed as production ones, constitute the State Fund for Mineral Deposits, and all previously assessed mineral deposits are the reserve of this fund. This fund is part of the State Subsoil Fund.
Minerals by value are divided into minerals of national and local importance. The assignment of minerals to the national and local significance is carried out by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine with the filing of the State Committee of Ukraine on Geology and Subsoil Use.
Subsoil users can be enterprises, institutions, organizations, citizens of Ukraine, as well as foreign legal entities and citizens. The subsoil is transferred for permanent or temporary use.
Subsoil use is paid. Payment is made for the use of subsoil within the boundaries of the territory of Ukraine, its continental shelf and the exclusive maritime economic zone.
The main requirements in the field of subsoil protection are:
providing a complete and comprehensive geological study of the subsoil;
adherence to the procedure for transferring subsoil for use established by law and preventing unauthorized use of subsoil;
rational extraction and use of mineral reserves and the components they contain;
prevention of the harmful effects of work related to the use of subsoil, etc.
In case of violation of these and other requirements, the use of subsoil may be limited, temporarily prohibited or stopped by the bodies of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine, state mining supervision, state geological control or other specially authorized state bodies in the manner prescribed by the legislation of Ukraine.

63. Protection of endangered and rare species of animals. Red Book of Ukraine

The nature reserve fund is areas of land and water space, natural complexes and objects that have a special environmental, scientific, aesthetic and other value, and therefore are allocated in order to preserve the natural environment, the gene pool of animals and flora, maintenance of the general ecological balance and ecological safety of Ukraine. The natural reserve fund includes: natural objects (reserves, national parks, etc.) and artificial objects ( botanical gardens, zoological parks, etc.). Nature reserves, protected areas of biosphere reserves, National parks are the property of the people of Ukraine. The rest of the objects of the nature reserve fund may be in other forms of ownership under certain conditions.
For violation of the legislation of Ukraine on the nature reserve fund, the guilty person may be brought to disciplinary, administrative, civil or criminal liability.
The Law of Ukraine "On the Natural Reserve Fund" regulates the economic, social, legal and environmental relations of the natural reserve fund in Ukraine.
A lot has been written and is being written about the environment, but this does not even slow down the movement of mankind towards a global catastrophe. Unfortunately, in this march of mankind to its destruction, there is also the "contribution" of Ukraine.
By the middle of the 20th century, the rapid development of industry, the growth of cities and other factors (the improvement of deadly weapons) sharply increased the harmful effects on nature.
To prevent the impending disaster, international organizations and projects appear (IUCN, "Man and the Biosphere", "World Conservation Strategy", etc.). Ukraine supports these and other international projects, first of all with a serious contribution of its most talented and, of course, the lowest paid scientists who work without serious government assistance.
A kind of greening of science is observed, i.e. ecology has become the basis for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of living organisms, has given rise to a number of legal norms, has an impact on the development of philosophy, sociology, economics, etc. etc.
Ukraine has had and continues to have one of the resource-intensive economies and a huge number of environmentally “dirty” enterprises. On June 26, 1991, the Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection" was adopted. It contains 16 sections on the regulation of various areas related to the protection of the natural environment, as an essential condition for economic and social development. The law defines the legal, economic and social foundations for environmental protection. The principles of environmental protection are determined: the obligation to comply with environmental standards; guaranteeing an environmentally safe environment; ecologization of material production; publicity and scientific character; responsibility for violations.
The Ukrainian Constitution adopted in 1996 reads: "Ensuring environmental safety and maintaining ecological balance in the territory of Ukraine, overcoming the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster - a catastrophe of a planetary scale, preserving the gene pool of the Ukrainian people is the responsibility of the state."
Now we can say that the legislation of Ukraine on nature protection is based on the Constitution of the country, the Law on Environmental Protection, legal norms that are contained in the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offenses, the Criminal Code of Ukraine, in a number of other branches of law (land, water, etc. etc.)
Article 50 of the Constitution of Ukraine reads: "Everyone has the right to a safe environment for life and health and to compensation for the harm caused by violation of this right."
I must emphasize that the legislation of Ukraine demonstrates the most serious approach to the problem “The powers of the Verkhovna Rada include:
Approval of national programs of economic, scientific and technical, social, national and cultural development, environmental protection. "
Nature protection is the task of the Cabinet of Ministers.
Directly state administration in the field of environmental protection and use of natural resources is carried out by the Ministry of Nature Protection, which is the main link in the system of central executive authorities. The Minister is a member of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.
The Ministry has its own governing body in the regions: the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, regions, the cities of Kiev and Sevastopol. In addition to directorates in the regions, he has at his immediate disposal the sanitary and epidemiological stations belonging to the Ministry of Health, departments and inspections under other ministries and departments of Ukraine, which control the rational use of mineral resources, forests, waters, fish resources, etc. From this it is clear that the fault of our impact, in the most negative respect, on the environment is not only the indisputable poverty of our state, the low ecological culture of the population, but also the lack of clear coordination at the state level of the work of various protective structures. The management system of environmental authorities cannot provide the necessary coordination of the relevant organizations. Moreover, she is not able to establish interaction with the movement of conservationists.
In this situation, the Red Data Book of Ukraine cannot in any way take its rightful place in the legal protection of nature, the provision on which was approved by the Resolution of the Verkhovna Rada of October 29, 1992.
Red Book - main state document containing generalized information about state of the art animals and plants of Ukraine, endangered, on measures for their preservation and scientifically secured reproduction.
The Cabinet of Ministers ensures the official publication of the Red Book at least once every 10 years. It is conducted by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine.
Based on the example of the long-term struggle around Mount Beaufort, I can draw a conclusion about the weakness of the environmental examination carried out by the Ministry, the cowardice of its officials (they decide to dig or not to dig for many years and depending on who invited them: the city - to dig this mountain, etc., means to ruin the whole region, and if the mining administration is to dig this mountain, etc., then it means feeding the whole region by selling fluxes to factories).
But environmental expertise is a powerful weapon in the hands of environmental organizations.
Environmental law is in the most stagnant state in Ukraine. Environmental human rights are not protected (it is enough to ask about the composition of the water that is supplied to our homes). Environmental funds are negligible. Due to all this, environmental crime does not even attract (in the rarest case) the attention of law enforcement agencies. And chapter 7 of the Administrative Offenses Code "Administrative offenses in the field of nature protection, use of natural resources ..." are in the center of attention, when in universities there are offsets on the AP.
But the chapter provides for liability for violations such as:
1. "Damage and pollution of agricultural and other lands" (Article 52).
2. "Violations of the rules for the use of land" (Article 53).
3. "Unauthorized seizure of a land plot" (Article 53).
4. "Concealment or distortion of data on land management" (Article 53).

76. Sovereign management of nature management and environmental protection

Environmental protection is a component of rational nature management. It is carried out by various methods, including legal ones. At the same time, predominantly all components of the natural environment are protected in legal forms. The modern main normative legal acts governing the foundations of the organization of environmental protection are the Laws of Ukraine: “On environmental protection” dated June 25, 1991, “On atmospheric air protection” dated October 16, 1992, “On natural reserve fund of Ukraine "from June 16, 1992," About the animal world "from March 3, 1993," About plant quarantine "from June 30, 1993, etc. Also, some relations in the field of use and protection of the natural environment are regulated by codes ...
Thus, the basis for the legal protection of the natural environment is formed by the norms of land, water, forestry legislation, legislation on subsoil, etc.
Environmental rights and obligations of citizens of Ukraine is a system of powers and obligations legally assigned to citizens in the environmental sphere. Environmental rights and obligations are fully enshrined in the Law of Ukraine "On environmental protection" (Articles 9-12)
According to the Law, a citizen of Ukraine has the right to: a safe environment for life and health; unification into public nature conservation formations; obtaining, in accordance with the established procedure, complete and reliable environmental information, etc. In addition, the Constitution of Ukraine says: “Everyone has the right to a safe environment for life and health, and to compensation for damage caused by violation of this right. Everyone is guaranteed the right of free access to information about the state of the environment, about the quality of food and household items, as well as the right to disseminate it ”(Article 50). It has been officially established that generalized comprehensive information about the environmental, radiation situation and the state of morbidity of the population should be made public on the territory of Ukraine at the request of the Ministry of Nature, the Ministry of Health of Ukraine through Ukrinform twice a year: for the first half of the year - until September 15, for the whole year - until April 1 of the next of the year.
All environmental rights of citizens are protected in court.
Along with the rights, the Law of Ukraine "On the protection of the natural environment" provides for certain obligations in relation to citizens. Thus, citizens are obliged: to preserve, protect and rationally use natural resources; not violate the environmental rights of other entities; compensate for the damage caused by them, etc. An important section is about environmental expertise, the obligatory nature of which is enshrined in law.
The right to use natural resources is a process of rational human use of natural resources to meet various needs and interests. The most important principles of nature management are its targeted nature, planning and timing, licensing, taking into account the great importance in the life of society. At the same time, such groups of nature management differ as the right of general and special use of land, waters, forests, mineral resources, fauna and other natural resources.
In accordance with the Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection", all citizens can be subjects of the right to use natural resources to meet various needs and interests. It is carried out by citizens free of charge and without a license. The right of general use of natural resources is also enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine: “Every citizen has the right to use natural sites property rights of the people in accordance with the law "(Article 13)
Special use of natural resources, in contrast to general use, is the use of specific natural resources carried out by citizens, enterprises and organizations in cases where the corresponding part of natural resources, as defined in the legislation, is transferred to them for use. Usually such a transfer is paid and timed. The transfer of natural resources takes place on the basis of special permits - state acts for the right of permanent use, for example, land, land lease agreements, licenses, etc. Purposes of special use are always stipulated. In addition, the Law imposes special obligations on subjects of special nature management, such as payments for special use of natural resources and payments for environmental pollution they produce.
Control in the field of nature management and environmental protection is carried out through verification, supervision, inspection, inventory and expertise. It can be carried out by both authorized state bodies and public entities. State control is vested in the councils of people's deputies, state administrations, the Ministry of Environmental Protection and its local bodies.
Public control is carried out by public inspectors for environmental protection, the procedure for which is determined by the Regulation approved by the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
The Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection" regulates the relations of environmental protection, rational use of natural resources, ensuring the environmental safety of human life and is aimed at creating favorable conditions for the economic and social development of Ukraine in the implementation of environmental policy.

Bibliography

1. A.G. Isachenko, "Geography in modern world". / 1998
2. State report on the state of the environment in Moscow / 1992
3.G.V. Stadnitsky, A.I. Rodionov. "Ecology".
4. Newspaper "Geography". No. 3, No. 5, No. 6/1999
5. V. V. Plotnikov "Introduction to ecological chemistry", 1989.
6. Kopychikov V.V. "Pravoznavstvo". Navch. Posibnik. -
Kiiv, Yurinkom Inter, 1999.
7. Bedriy Ya., Genik Ya., Orlov VM, Titenko VF. "Fundamentals of ecology and sociology". Navch. Handbook for enterprises in a language. Edited by MV Zakharchenko - Lviv, 1997.
8. Bilyavskiy G.O., Padun M.M., Furduy R.S. "Fundamentals of home ecology".
2nd view. - K.: 1995.

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9. Natural resources and their classification

26. Raw materials, their economic and complex use

Non-renewable resources

Renewable resources

41. Rational use and protection of water resources in agriculture

53. Legal aspect of subsoil protection

63. Protection of endangered and rare species of animals. Red Data Book of Ukraine …………………………………………………………………………………

76. Sovereign management of nature management and environmental protection ………

Bibliography

9. Natural resources and their classification

Natural resources (natural resources) are elements of nature, part of the entire set of natural conditions and the most important components of the natural environment that are used (or can be used) at a given level of development of productive forces to meet the various needs of society and social production.

Natural resources are the main object of nature management, during which they are exploited and further processed. The main types of natural resources - solar energy, internal heat, water, land and mineral resources - are the means of labor. Plant resources, fauna, drinking water, wild plants - are commodities.

Due to the huge volume of natural substances and energy used, the problem of providing mankind with natural resources is global. To prevent the depletion of natural resources, it is necessary to rational and comprehensive use of natural resources, to search for new sources of raw materials, fuel and energy.

The classification of natural resources is understood as the division of the totality of objects, objects and phenomena of the natural environment into groups according to functionally significant characteristics. Taking into account the natural origin of resources, as well as their enormous economic importance, the following classifications of natural resources have been developed.

Natural (genetic) classification - classification of natural resources by natural groups: mineral (minerals), water, land (including soil), plant, (including forest), fauna, climatic, natural energy resources processes (solar radiation, internal heat of the Earth, wind energy, etc.). The resources of flora and fauna are often grouped under the concept of biological resources.

The ecological classification of natural resources is based on signs of depletion and renewal of resource reserves. The concept of exhaustion is used when taking into account the reserves of natural resources and the volumes of their possible economic withdrawal. Resources are allocated on this basis:

inexhaustible - the use of which by a person does not lead to an apparent depletion of their reserves now or in the foreseeable future (solar energy, internal heat, energy of water, air);

derived non-renewable - the continuous use of which can reduce them to a level at which further exploitation becomes economically impractical, while they are incapable of self-healing in terms commensurate with the terms of consumption (for example, mineral resources);

recovered renewable - resources that are characterized by the ability to restore (through reproduction or other natural cycles), for example, flora, fauna, water resources, In this subgroup, resources are allocated with extremely slow rates of renewal (fertile land, forest resources with high quality wood).

Economic, when natural resources are classified into different groups in terms of the possibilities of economic use:

according to the technical possibilities of exploitation, natural resources are allocated: real - used at a given level of development of productive forces; potential - established on the basis of theoretical calculations and preliminary work and including, in addition to precisely established technically available reserves, also the part that cannot currently be mastered according to technical capabilities;

according to the economic feasibility of replacement, they distinguish between replaceable and irreplaceable resources. For example, fuel and energy resources are referred to as replaceable (they can be replaced by other energy sources). The indispensable resources include atmospheric air resources, fresh water, etc.

An important role in the development of the economy is played by the degree of knowledge of natural resources: the structure of the soil, the amount and structure of minerals, wood reserves and its annual growth, etc. Among natural resources, mineral raw materials play a special role in the life of society, and the degree of endowment with natural resources reflects the economic level of the state ... Depending on the geological exploration, mineral resources are subdivided into the following categories: A - reserves, explored and studied with extreme detail, exact boundaries of occurrence, and which can be transferred to exploitation. B - reserves, explored and studied in detail, ensuring the identification of the main conditions of occurrence, without an accurate display of the spatial position of the field. C1 - reserves, explored and studied in detail, providing clarification in general terms of the conditions of occurrence. C2 - reserves, explored, studied and estimated in advance by single samples and samples.

Moreover:

In terms of economic value, minerals are divided into balance ones, the exploitation of which is expedient at the moment, and off-balance ones, the exploitation of which is impractical due to the low content of the useful substance, the great depth of occurrence, the peculiarities of the working conditions, etc., but which in the future can be developed.

Among the classifications of natural resources, reflecting their economic significance and economic role, the classification according to the direction and types of economic use is especially often used. The main criterion for subdividing resources in it is their assignment to different sectors of material production or non-production sphere. On this basis, natural resources are divided into resources of industrial and agricultural production.

The industrial production resource group includes all types of natural raw materials used by industry. Due to the diversified nature of industrial production, the types of natural resources are differentiated as follows:

Energy resources, which include various types of resources used at the present stage for energy production:

combustible minerals (oil, gas, coal, bituminous shale, etc.)

hydropower resources (river water energy, tidal energy, etc.);

sources of bioenergy (fuel wood, biogas from agricultural waste.);

sources of nuclear energy (uranium and radioactive elements).

Non-energy resources representing raw materials for various industries or participating in production according to its technical characteristics:

minerals that do not belong to the group of caustobiolites (ore and non-metallic);

water used for industrial production;

land occupied by industrial facilities and infrastructure;

industrial forest resources;

biological resources of industrial importance.

Agricultural production resources combine those types of resources that are involved in the creation of agricultural products:

agroclimatic resources of heat and moisture required for the production of cultivated plants and grazing;

soil and land - the earth and its top layer - the soil, which has a unique property to produce biomass;

plant biological resources - food resources;

water resources - water used for irrigation, etc.

The resources of the non-production sphere (non-production consumption - direct or indirect) include resources withdrawn from the natural environment (wild animals representing the objects of commercial hunting, medicinal raw materials of natural origin), as well as resources of the recreational economy, protected areas, etc.

The combination of natural and economic classifications makes it possible to reveal the possibility of multidirectional use of various natural groups of resources, as well as their replaceability, to draw conclusions about the tasks of rational use and protection of certain species. According to the relationship of uses, there is the following classification:

resources of unambiguous use;

multipurpose resources, incl. interrelated (integrated) use (water resources), mutually exclusive (competing) use (land resources).

Other groups of natural resources can also be identified. For example, sources of homogeneous resources (mineral deposits, land, timber resources, etc.) are subdivided according to the amount of reserves and economic significance. Conditionally distinguish:

the largest (of national importance),

large (interdistrict and regional significance),

small (local).

Private classifications of natural resources are also being developed, reflecting the specifics of their natural properties and areas of economic use. An example of this type is various amelioration classifications, groups of rivers according to the degree of flow regulation, etc. The geological and economic classification of minerals according to the main directions of their use in industry is widely used:

fuel and energy raw materials (oil, gas, coal, uranium, etc.);

ferrous, alloying and refractory metals (iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten ores, etc.);

noble metals (gold, silver, platinoids),

chemical and agronomic raw materials (potassium salts, phosphorites, apatites, etc.);

technical raw materials (diamonds, asbestos, graphite, etc.).

In market conditions of the economy, the classification of natural resources is of practical interest, taking into account, in particular, the nature of trade in natural raw materials. For example, you can highlight:

resources of strategic importance, trade in which should be limited, since it leads to the undermining of the defense power of the state (uranium ore and other radioactive substances);

resources of wide export value and providing the main inflow of foreign exchange earnings (oil, diamonds, gold, etc.);

resources of the domestic market, which, as a rule, are ubiquitous, for example, mineral raw materials, etc.

Separate structural schemes for the classification of natural resources are shown in Fig. 1,2 and 3.

Figure 1. Classification of natural resources by origin

Figure 2. Classification of natural resources based on exhaustion

Figure 3. Classification of natural resources by types of economic use

26. Raw materials, their economic and complex use

Modern industry, especially its branches such as chemical synthesis, smelting of light metals, is characterized by an increased demand for energy, water and raw materials. To smelt 1 ton of aluminum, it is necessary to spend tens of times more water than to produce 1 ton of steel, and to produce 1 ton of artificial fiber, it is necessary to use hundreds of times more water than to produce the same amount of cotton fabric. Oil and gas have become the main sources of energy and, at the same time, important raw materials for the chemical industry. These circumstances explain the ever-increasing exploitation of oil and gas fields. The production of each new synthetic product entails "chain reactions" in technology - for example, a large amount of chlorine is required for the synthesis of plastics, the production of chlorine involves the use of mercury as a catalyst, and all together - huge expenditures of energy, water and oxygen. Almost all chemical elements that exist on Earth are involved in modern industry.

The question arose before mankind: how long will the necessary natural resources be sufficient for it? Gone are the days when it seemed that the Earth's resources were inexhaustible. The very division of natural resources into inexhaustible and exhaustible is becoming more and more conventional. More and more types of resources are moving from the first category to the second.Now we are already thinking about the possibility of depleting atmospheric oxygen reserves, and in the future the same question may arise even about the resources of solar energy, although its flow still seems to us practically inexhaustible.

There are different forecasts regarding the future of our natural resources. Of course, they should be considered very indicative. When developing such forecasts, one must proceed, on the one hand, from an assessment of the prospects for population growth and production and, accordingly, the needs of society, and, on the other, from the availability of reserves of each resource. However, it would be risky to prolong the current trend of population and production growth far into the future. Thus, it must be assumed that as living standards rise in developing countries, which account for the bulk of population growth, overall growth should slow down. In addition, scientific and technological progress will undoubtedly continue in the direction of searching for more economical, resource-saving technologies, which will gradually reduce the need for many natural sources of production.

Based on the foregoing, one should expect, at least in the coming decades, a further increase in demand for a wide variety of natural resources. When assessing their reserves, it is important to distinguish between two large groups of resources - non-renewable and renewable. The first ones are practically not replenished, and their number steadily decreases with use. This includes mineral resources as well as land resources limited by the size of the earth's surface area. Renewable resources are either capable of self-healing (biological), or are continuously supplied to the Earth from the outside (solar energy), or, being in a continuous cycle, can be reused (water). Of course, renewable resources, like non-renewable ones, are not infinite, but their renewable part (annual income or growth) can be constantly used.

If we turn to the main types of the world's natural resources, then in the most general form we get the following picture. The main type of energy resources is still mineral fuel - oil, gas, coal. These energy sources are non-renewable, and at the current rate of growth of their production, they may be exhausted in 80-140 years. True, the share of these sources should be reduced due to the development of atomic energy based on the use of "heavy" nuclear fuel - fissile isotopes of uranium and thorium. But even these resources are non-renewable: according to some sources, uranium will last only for several decades.

The importance of natural resources for the life of society cannot in any way diminish for the simple reason that they remain the only source of material production. At the same time, the less production is associated with local resources, the more its dependence on remote sources increases and the wider the range of such sources, many of which acquire not only national but also global significance. Let us recall the role of oil and gas fields in the Tyumen North in the economy of our country or the oil of the Persian Gulf in the world economy. Let us add that there are branches of the national economy, and above all agriculture, which cannot "emancipate" from the local natural environment at all and will always be tied to it.

All types of natural resources - thermal, water, mineral, biological, soil - are associated with certain components of the natural complex (geosystem) and constitute a consumable part of these components. The ability to be consumed is a specific property of natural resources that distinguishes them from natural conditions. The latter include permanent properties of natural complexes that are not used to obtain a useful product, but which have a significant positive or negative effect on the development and location of production (for example, temperature and water conditions, winds, relief, bearing capacity of soils, permafrost, seismicity).

It is important to distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources. Some resources are renewed due to their constant influx from Space (solar energy), others - due to the continuous circulation of matter in the geographic shell (fresh water), and finally, still others - due to the ability to self-reproduction (biological resources). Non-renewable resources include mineral resources.

Non-renewable resources

The resources of the earth's interior are considered non-renewable. Strictly speaking, many of them can be renewed in the course of geological cycles, but the duration of these cycles, determined by hundreds of millions of years, is incommensurate with the stages of development of society and the rate of consumption of mineral resources.

The planet's irreplaceable resources can be divided into two large groups:

a) Non-renewable mineral resources.

More than a hundred non-combustible materials are currently being mined from the earth's crust. Minerals are formed and modified as a result of the processes that occur during the formation of earth's rocks over many millions of years. The use of a mineral resource includes several stages. The first is the discovery of a fairly rich deposit. Then - the extraction of the mineral by organizing some form of its extraction. The third stage is processing the ore to remove impurities and converting it into the desired chemical form. The latter is the use of the mineral for the production of various products.

The development of mineral deposits, the deposits of which are located close to the earth's surface, are carried out by surface mining, arranging open pits, open pit mining by creating horizontal strips, or mining using dredging equipment. When minerals are located far underground, they are extracted by underground mining.

Extraction, processing and use of any non-combustible mineral resource causes disturbance of the soil cover and erosion, pollutes air and water. Underground mining is more dangerous and costly than surface mining, but it is much less likely to disturb the soil cover. In underground mining, water pollution can occur due to mine acid drainage. In most cases, the areas where the extraction is carried out can be restored, but this is an expensive process. Mining and wasteful use of products made from fossil fuels and wood also generate large amounts of solid waste.

Estimating the amount of a useful mineral resource actually available in terms of extraction is a very expensive and complicated process. And besides, it cannot be determined with great precision. Mineral Resource Reserves are categorized as Indicated Resources and Undiscovered Resources. In turn, each of these categories is divided into reserves, that is, those minerals that can be extracted with profit at existing prices with the existing mining technology, and resources - all discovered and undetected resources, including those that cannot be extracted with profit at current prices and existing technology. Most of the published estimates of specific non-renewable resources relate to reserves.

When 80% of the reserves or estimated resource of a material has been recovered and used, the resource is considered depleted, as the remaining 20% ​​is usually not profitable to recover. The amount of the recovered resource and thus the time of depletion can be increased by increasing the estimated reserves, if high prices force the search for new deposits, the development of new production technologies, an increase in the share of recycling and secondary use, or to reduce the level of resource consumption. Some economically depleted resources manage to find a replacement.

To increase reserves, environmentalists propose increasing the recycling and reuse of non-renewable mineral resources and reducing unnecessary waste of such resources. Recycling, reuse and waste reduction require less energy for their implementation and less damage to soil and pollute water and air than the use of primary resources.

Environmentalists are urging industrialized countries to move from disposable, high waste to low waste. This will require, in addition to recycling and reuse, also the attraction of economic incentives, specific actions of governments and people, as well as changes in the behavior and lifestyle of the world's population.

b) Non-renewable energy resources.

The main factors that determine the degree of use of any energy source are its estimated reserves, net output of useful energy, cost, potential hazardous impacts on environmental harm, as well as social consequences and impact on state security. Each energy source has advantages and disadvantages.

Conventional crude oil can be easily transported, it is a relatively cheap and widely used fuel, and has a high net useful energy yield. However, the available oil reserves may be depleted in 40-80 years; when oil is burned, a large amount of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, which can lead to global climate change.

Unconventional heavy oil, the remainder of conventional oil, as well as from oil shale and sand, can increase oil reserves. But it is expensive, has a low net energy yield, requires a lot of water to process, and has a more harmful effect on the environment than conventional oil.

Conventional natural gas generates more heat and burns more completely than other fossil fuels, is a versatile and relatively cheap fuel, and has a high net energy yield. But its reserves can be depleted in 40-100 years, and when it is burned, carbon dioxide is formed.

Coal is the world's most abundant fossil fuel. It has a high net useful energy yield for electricity generation and high temperature heat generation for industrial processes, and is relatively cheap. But coal is extremely dirty, its mining is dangerous and harmful to the environment, as well as burning, if there are no expensive special devices for monitoring the level of air pollution; emits more carbon dioxide per unit of energy received than other fossil fuels, and it is inconvenient to use it for traffic and heating houses, unless it is first converted into gaseous or liquid form. Significant disturbance of the soil cover during extraction.

The heat hidden in the earth's crust, or geothermal energy, is converted into non-renewable underground deposits of dry steam, steam and hot water in various places on the planet. If these deposits are located close enough to the earth's surface, the heat obtained during their development can be used for heating premises and generating electricity. They can provide energy for 100-200 years to the regions located near the fields, and at a reasonable price. They have an average net energy output and do not emit carbon dioxide. Although this type of energy source also brings a lot of inconvenience to mining and considerable environmental pollution.

The nuclear fission reaction is also a source of energy, and a very promising one. The main advantages of this energy source are that nuclear reactors do not emit carbon dioxide and other substances harmful to the environment, and the degree of water and soil pollution is within acceptable limits, provided that the entire nuclear fuel cycle is running normally. The disadvantages include the fact that the cost of equipment for servicing this energy source is very high; ordinary nuclear power plants can only be used for the production of electricity; there is a risk of a major accident; net useful energy output is low; storage facilities for radioactive waste have not been developed. Due to the above disadvantages, this energy source is currently not widely used. Therefore, an ecologically clean future belongs to alternative energy sources.

Both types of these resources are equally important to us, but the division is introduced because these two large groups of resources are very different from each other.

Renewable resources

Renewable resources deserve special attention. The whole mechanism of their renewal is, in essence, a manifestation of the functioning of geosystems due to the absorption and transformation of the radiant energy of the Sun - this is the primary source of all renewable resources. Therefore, in their location, they are subject to universal geographic patterns - zoning, sectorality, and high-altitude tiering. It follows from this that the study of the formation and distribution of renewable resources is directly related to the field of physical geography. Renewable resources should be considered as resources of the future: unlike non-renewable ones, they are not doomed to complete extinction with rational use, and their reproduction can be controlled to a certain extent (for example, by means of reclamation of forests, it is possible to increase their productivity and wood yield).

It should be noted that anthropogenic interference in the biological cycle strongly undermines the natural process of renewal of biological resources (and derivatives from them). Therefore, as a result of economic activity, real biological resources are usually lower than potential ones. Thus, forests on Earth have been destroyed over vast areas, and in the preserved forests the annual growth of timber is often 3–4 times less than in undisturbed stands; irrational use of natural pastures leads to a decrease in their productivity. The resources of free oxygen in the atmosphere are also derived from the biological cycle. Their replenishment in the process of photosynthesis is steadily decreasing, and the man-made consumption (mainly when burning fossil fuel) increases.

Consider renewable resources:

a) Free oxygen.

It is renewed mainly in the process of plant photosynthesis; Under natural conditions, the balance of oxygen is maintained by its consumption for the processes of respiration, decay, and the formation of carbonates. Already now, mankind uses about 10% (and according to some estimates - even more) of the incoming part of the oxygen balance in the atmosphere. True, the decrease in atmospheric oxygen has not yet been felt even with precise instruments. But under the condition of an annual 5% increase in oxygen consumption for industrial and energy needs, its content in the atmosphere will decrease, according to F.F.Davitaia's calculations, by 2/3, i.e. it will become critical for human life in 180 years, and with an annual growth of 10% - in 100 years.

b) Fresh water resources.

Fresh water on Earth is renewed annually in the form of atmospheric precipitation, the volume of which is 520 thousand km3. However, in practice, in water management calculations and forecasts, one should proceed only from that part of the precipitation that flows down the earth's surface, forming watercourses. This will amount to 37 - 38 thousand km3. Currently, 3.6 thousand km3 of runoff is diverted for household needs in the world, but in fact more is used, since here it is necessary to add that part of the runoff that is spent on diluting the polluted waters; in total, this will amount to 8.2 thousand km3, that is, more than 1/5 of the world's river flow. According to M. I. Lvovich, by 2000 the world demand for water will exceed the annual volume of runoff, if the principles of water use do not change. If the discharge of wastewater is completely stopped, then the annual water consumption will be about 7 thousand km3, but this water will no longer return to the rivers, i.e. production). Additional reserves of water resources - desalination of sea water, the use of icebergs.

Large quantities of fresh water are contaminated by human activities. Let's consider this using the example of Moscow:

Moscow is the first city in Russia in terms of size and importance, and because of its size, a huge number of industrial enterprises are concentrated in it. The volume of industrial effluents defies any description. Thermal pollution plays an important role along with industrial effluents. An increase in groundwater temperature affects the surrounding nature. Below the city, the Moskva River almost never freezes; it has turned into a huge drainage ditch for human life. The sources of water supply for Moscow are the Moscow River and its tributaries, as well as groundwater, like those that form in the basin of the river. Moscow due to surface runoff, and the waters of deep horizons, not associated with surface runoff.

Groundwater reserves in the Moscow region are insufficient for stable provision of the city's household and drinking needs, in connection with which surface sources are used.

Within the city, the water fund is represented by the river. Moscow and more than 70 small rivers and streams with a total length of 165.0 km. A completely open channel has been preserved at seven rivers: Yauza, Setun, Skhodnya, Ramenki, Ochakovka, Ichki and Chechera. The rest of the rivers are partially or completely enclosed in collector systems and serve to divert surface runoff. In addition to contaminated surface runoff, the quality of rivers is negatively affected by the discharge of insufficiently treated wastewater from industrial enterprises and city aeration stations.

Below the confluence of the Moscow-Volga canal into the r. Moscow, the flow rate of the river is as follows: 5 cubic meters. m / s - flow rate of the river. Moscow below the Rublevsky water intake; - 30-35 cubic meters m / s - design water flow rate from the Moscow-Volga canal; 10 cubic meters m / s - surface runoff (from the tributaries of the Moskva river within the city limits); 66 cc m / s waste water from the city sewerage, discharged into the river. Moscow; 5 cubic meters m / s - wastewater from industrial enterprises entering the river in addition to citywide sewage networks.

River basin Moscow within the city of Moscow is under the influence of the industrial complex, which has a significant impact on the change in the chemical composition of water as the river. Moscow and its tributaries. In the capital, there are about 30 enterprises (not counting the CHP and aeration stations), supplying from 41 thousand to 39850 thousand cubic meters. m / year of waste water in the river Skhodnya, Setun, Yauza, Pekhorka, Moscow, etc. In general, the r. Moscow within the city of Moscow receives up to 1,767,540 thousand cubic meters. m / year of industrial and domestic wastewater from leading industries based in the region.

Surface runoff from the city's territory is formed due to melted snow and rainwater, as well as irrigation and washing waters. In the districts of Moscow, the value of the runoff modulus varies within 5.64 (Zheleznodorozhny district) - 15.0 l / s sq. Km (Sverdlovsk region). The average flow module for the city of Moscow is 9 l / s sq. km. In general, there is an increase in the flow modulus from the outskirts of the city to the center. Surface runoff from the territory of the city is not cleared of pollution and directly enters the water bodies, carrying with it a large amount of organic, suspended solids and oil products. In general, in Moscow during the year with surface runoff, 3840 tons of oil products, 452080 tons of suspended solids, 173280 tons of chlorides, 18460 tons of organic matter (in terms of BOD) are received. As a result, oil products enter the city's water bodies with surface runoff 1.8 times, and suspended solids almost 24 times more than with waste water from enterprises. Most of the pollution: oil products - 63%, suspended solids - 75%, organic matter - 64%, chlorides - 95%, enters the river. Moscow with surface runoff in winter and spring.

Historically, a strong custom has developed to locate landfills in spent quarries and ravines, that is, as close as possible to groundwater; to locate factories, treatment facilities, filtration fields, warehouses - in river valleys, i.e. where natural protection of groundwater is often lacking.

c) Biological resources.

They are made up of plant and animal mass, the one-time supply of which on Earth is measured in the order of 2.4 1012 tons (in terms of dry matter). The annual increase in biomass in the world (that is, biological productivity) is approximately 2.3 · 1011 tons. The bulk of the Earth's biomass (about 4/5) falls on forest vegetation, which accounts for more than 1/3 of the total annual increase in living matter. Human activities have led to a significant reduction in the total biomass and biological productivity of the Earth. True, by replacing part of the former forest areas with arable lands and pastures, people gained in the qualitative composition of biological products and were able to provide food and important technical raw materials (fiber, leather, etc.) to the growing population of the Earth.

Food resources make up no more than 1% of the total biological productivity of land and ocean and no more than 20% of all agricultural products. Taking into account population growth and the need to provide adequate nutrition for the entire population of the Earth by 2000, the production of crop products should be increased at least 2 times, and livestock products - 3 times. This means that the production of primary (plant) biological products, including feed for animals, it is necessary to increase at least 3-4 times. Calculations for the expansion of cultivated land are unlikely to have serious grounds, since the reserves of suitable areas for this are extremely limited. Obviously, a way out should be sought in the intensification of agriculture, including the development of irrigated agriculture, mechanization, selection, etc., as well as in the rational use of the biological resources of the Ocean. The necessary conditions and resources are available, but the calculations of some authors on the possibility of feeding tens and hundreds of billions and even several trillions of people on Earth cannot be regarded as anything other than utopian.