Climatic seasons parts of the year, distinguished by the characteristics of the climate. Division of the year for K. s. different in different climatic zones. In the equatorial belt with uniform humidification and a small amplitude of air temperature, the division of the year into K. s. it is impractical to carry out. In subequatorial zones with a well-pronounced annual course of precipitation, dry and rainy weather conditions are distinguished. In the monsoon tropics, in addition to dry winters and humid summers, there are short transitional seasons with a change in monsoons, while spring, before the onset of the summer monsoon, is often warmer than summer. In middle latitudes, 4 independent seasons are well expressed (spring, summer, autumn, winter). In the polar regions, spring and autumn turn into short transitional seasons. See also Seasons .
Climate (section Climates of the Earth).
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
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Parts of the year lasting several months, distinguished by climatic characteristics (usually by thermal regime and moisture conditions). For example, in temperate latitudes winter, spring, summer, autumn are distinguished, in monsoon tropical regions ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Parts of the year lasting several. months allocated but climatic. signs (usually on thermal. Regime and conditions of humidification). For example, in temperate latitudes distinguish between winter, spring, summer, autumn, in monsoon tropics. areas dry and rainy K. with ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary
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The extreme north of the USSR and the islands of the Arctic Ocean belong to the arctic and subarctic climatic zones; most of the country is located within the temperate zone, the southern regions of the Crimea, the Caucasus, and Central Asia v… …
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- Health in any season and any weather. The book is framed by the works of Nikas Safronov, V.V. Yarovaya. This is the only book on health in which the author speaks with the reader on an equal footing; in it you will not receive final advice, and you yourself will have to understand why you need to follow exactly this, ...
Against the background of a relatively stable climate, the weather is constantly changing, mainly due to the circulation of the atmosphere. The most stable weather in tropical countries and the most changeable in the middle latitudes and circumpolar regions, in particular, in the north of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, where cyclones often arise and develop. Daily weather forecasting methods are based on the construction of daily surface and high-altitude synoptic weather maps, to the analysis of which the general physical laws of atmospheric processes are applied. When forecasting for 3-5 days or more, various statistical techniques are used ( cm. METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA).
The main types of climate. Climate classification provides an ordered system for characterizing climate types, their regionalization and mapping. The types of climate that prevail over large areas are called macroclimates. A macroclimatic region should have more or less homogeneous climatic conditions that distinguish it from other regions, although it is only a generalized characteristic (since there are no two places with an identical climate), more consistent with realities than the selection of climatic regions only on the basis of belonging to a certain latitudinal -the geographical belt.The climate of ice sheets prevails in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below 0 ° C. In the dark winter season, these regions do not receive at all. solar radiation although there are twilight and aurora borealis. Even in summer, the sun's rays fall on the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the efficiency of warming up. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by ice. In both summer and winter, the elevated regions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet are dominated by low temperatures... The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, because southern mainland is distinguished by its large size and heights, and the Arctic Ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread distribution of pack ice. In summer, during short warmings, drifting ice sometimes melts. Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of ice fog. The interior regions receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but more than 500 mm can fall on the coast. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant amounts of snow, blowing it off the rocks. Strong katabatic winds with blizzards blow from the cold ice sheet, carrying snow to the coast.
The subpolar climate manifests itself in the tundra regions on the northern outskirts of North America and Eurasia, as well as on the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands. In eastern Canada and Siberia southern border of this climatic zone passes significantly south of the Arctic Circle due to the strongly pronounced influence of vast land masses. This leads to long and extremely cold winters. Summers are short and cool, with average monthly temperatures rarely exceeding + 10 ° C. To some extent, long days compensate for the short duration of summer, but in most of the territory, the heat received is not enough to completely thaw the soil. Permanently frozen ground, called permafrost, inhibits the growth of plants and the filtration of melt water into the ground. Therefore, in summer, flat areas turn out to be swampy. On the coast, winter temperatures are slightly higher, and summer temperatures are slightly lower than in the interior regions of the mainland. In summer, when humid air is above cold water or sea ice, fog often occurs on the Arctic coasts.
The annual amount of precipitation usually does not exceed 380 mm. Most of them fall in the form of rain or snow in the summer, during the passage of cyclones. On the coast, the bulk of precipitation can be brought by winter cyclones, but the low temperatures and clear weather of the cold season, typical for most areas with a subpolar climate, are unfavorable for significant snow accumulation.
The subarctic climate is also known as the "taiga climate" (according to the prevailing type of vegetation - coniferous forests). This climatic zone covers the temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere - the northern regions of North America and Eurasia, located immediately south of the subpolar climate zone. Sharp seasonal climatic differences are manifested here due to the position of this climatic zone in rather high latitudes in the inner parts of the continents. Winters are long and extremely cold, and the farther north, the shorter the days. Summers are short and cool with long days. In winter, the period with negative temperatures is very long, and in summer the temperature at times can exceed + 32 ° C. In most of the considered climatic zone, less than 500 mm of precipitation falls per year, and their amount is maximum on the windward coasts and minimum in the inner part of Siberia. There is very little snowfall in winter, snowfalls are associated with rare cyclones. Summers are usually more humid, and it rains mainly when atmospheric fronts pass. Fogs and overcast clouds are common on the coasts. In winter, in severe frosts, ice fogs hang over the snow cover.
The humid continental climate with short summers is characteristic of the vast temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, it stretches from the prairies in southern central Canada to the coast Atlantic Ocean, and in Eurasia it covers most of Eastern Europe and some regions of Central Siberia. The same type of climate is observed in the Japanese island of Hokkaido and in the south. Of the Far East... The main climatic features of these regions are determined by the prevailing westerly transport and the frequent passage of atmospheric fronts. In severe winters, average air temperatures can drop to –18 ° C. Summers are short and cool, with a frost-free period of less than 150 days. The annual temperature range is not as great as in the subarctic climate. In Moscow, the average temperatures in January are -9 ° С, in July - + 18 ° С. climatic zone spring frosts pose a constant threat to agriculture. In the coastal provinces of Canada, New England and Hokkaido, winters are warmer than in the inland regions, as the easterly winds occasionally bring warmer ocean air.
Annual precipitation ranges from less than 500 mm in the interior of the continents to over 1000 mm on the coasts. In most of the area, precipitation falls mainly in summer, often during thunderstorm showers. Winter precipitation, mainly in the form of snow, is associated with the passage of fronts in cyclones. Blizzards are often seen behind cold front lines.
Humid continental climate with long summers . Air temperatures and the length of the summer season increase southward in humid regions. continental climate... This type of climate is manifested in the temperate latitudinal belt of North America from the eastern Great Plains to the Atlantic coast, and in southeastern Europe - in the lower reaches of the Danube. Similar climatic conditions are found in northeastern China and central Japan. It is also dominated by the western transfer. average temperature the warmest month is + 22 ° С (but temperatures can exceed + 38 ° С), summer nights are warm. Winters are not as cold as in humid continental climates with short summers, but temperatures sometimes drop below 0 ° C. The annual temperature range is usually 28 ° C. Most often, in humid continental climates with long summers, precipitation falls from 500 to 1100 mm in year. The greatest amount of precipitation is brought by summer thunderstorms during the growing season. In winter, rains and snowfalls are mainly associated with the passage of cyclones and associated fronts.
Temperate maritime climate inherent in the western coasts of the continents, primarily in northwestern Europe, the central part of the Pacific coast of North America, southern Chile, southeastern Australia and New Zealand. The prevailing westerly winds blowing from the oceans have a softening effect on the course of air temperature. Winters are mild with average temperatures of the coldest month above 0 ° C, but when the Arctic air currents reach the coasts, there are also frosts. Summers are generally quite warm; during incursions of continental air during the day, the temperature can rise for a short time to + 38 ° C. This type of climate with a small annual amplitude temperature is the most moderate among the climates of temperate latitudes.
In areas of moderate maritime climate the average annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 2500 mm. The most humidified are the windward slopes of the coastal mountains. Cyclones moving from the oceans bring a lot of precipitation to the western continental outskirts. In winter, as a rule, the weather is cloudy with light rains and rare short-term snowfalls. Fogs are common on the coasts, especially in summer and autumn.
A humid subtropical climate is characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal province in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summers in the humid subtropics are long and hot, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds + 27 ° C, and the maximum is + 38 ° C. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C. In humid subtropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation by seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rains and occasional snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air characteristic of the monsoon circulation. East Asia... Hurricanes (or typhoons) occur in late summer and fall, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.
Subtropical climate with dry typical summer west coasts continents north and south of the tropics. V Southern Europe and North Africa, such climatic conditions are typical for the coasts Mediterranean Sea, which was the reason to call this climate also Mediterranean. Same climate in southern California central regions Chile, in the extreme south of Africa and in several areas in southern Australia. All these areas have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. Inland temperatures are much higher in summer than on coasts and are often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. Fogs are common on the coasts near which ocean currents pass in summer. The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing western air currents are shifted towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downdrafts under the oceans are responsible for the dryness of the summer season. The average annual quantity precipitation in a subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches its maximum values on the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In summer, there is usually not enough rainfall for the normal growth of trees, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mali, macchia and finbosh.
The semi-arid climate of temperate latitudes (synonym - steppe climate) is typical mainly for inland regions, far from the oceans (sources of moisture) and usually located in the rain shadow of high mountains. The main regions with a semiarid climate are the intermontane basins and the Great Plains of North America and the steppes of central Eurasia. Hot summers and cold winters are due to the inland position in temperate latitudes. At least one winter month has an average temperature below 0 ° C, and the average temperature of the warmest summer month is above + 21 ° C. Temperature regime and the length of the frost-free period varies significantly with latitude. The term "semiarid" is used to characterize this climate because it is less dry than the arid (dry) climate itself. The average annual precipitation is usually less than 500 mm, but more than 250 mm. Since for the development of steppe vegetation in conditions of higher temperatures, more precipitation is required, the latitudinal-geographic and altitude position of the area determine climate change... For a semiarid climate, there are no general patterns of precipitation distribution throughout the year. For example, in areas bordering the subtropics with dry summers, the maximum precipitation is observed in winter, while in areas adjacent to areas of humid continental climate, it rains mainly in summer. Cyclones in temperate latitudes bring most of the winter precipitation, which often falls as snow and can be accompanied by strong winds. Summer thunderstorms often occur with hail... The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year.
The arid climate of temperate latitudes is inherent mainly in the Central Asian deserts, and in the western United States - only in small areas in intermontane basins. The temperatures are the same as in regions with a semi-arid climate, however, there is not enough rainfall for the existence of a closed natural vegetation cover, and the average annual amounts usually do not exceed 250 mm. As in semiarid climatic conditions, the amount of precipitation, which determines the aridity, depends on the thermal regime.
The semi-arid climate of low latitudes is mainly typical of the outskirts tropical deserts(e.g. the Sahara and the deserts of central Australia) where downdrafts in subtropical zones high pressure exclude precipitation. The climate in question differs from the semiarid climate of temperate latitudes in very hot summers and warm winter... Average monthly temperatures are above 0 ° C, although frosts sometimes occur in winter, especially in areas farthest from the equator and located at high altitudes. The amount of precipitation required for the existence of closed natural herbaceous vegetation is higher here than in temperate latitudes. In the equatorial zone, it rains mainly in summer, while on the outer (northern and southern) outskirts of deserts, the maximum precipitation occurs in winter. Most of the precipitation falls in the form of thunderstorms. showers and in winter rains carried by cyclones.
Arid climate of low latitudes. It is a hot, dry climate of tropical deserts that stretch along the North and South tropics and are influenced by subtropical anticyclones for most of the year. Salvation from the sweltering summer heat can be found only on the coasts washed by cold ocean currents, or in the mountains. On the plains, the average summer temperatures noticeably exceed + 32 ° C, winter temperatures are usually above + 10 ° C. In most of this climatic region, the average annual precipitation does not exceed 125 mm. It so happens that precipitation has not been recorded at all at many meteorological stations for several years in a row. Sometimes the average annual precipitation can reach 380 mm, but this is still enough only for the development of sparse desert vegetation. Occasionally precipitation occurs in the form of short, strong thunderstorm showers, but the water drains quickly, forming flash floods. The driest areas are along the western coasts of South America and Africa, where cold ocean currents prevent the formation of clouds and loss precipitation. Fogs are common on these coasts, formed by condensation of moisture in the air over the colder ocean surface.Variably humid tropical climate. Regions with such a climate are located in tropical sublatitudinal zones, several degrees north and south of the equator. This climate is also called monsoon tropical, as it prevails in those parts of South Asia that are influenced by monsoons... Other regions with such a climate are the tropics of Central and South America, Africa and Northern Australia... Average summer temperatures are usually around + 27 ° C, while winter temperatures are around + 21 ° C. The hottest month usually precedes the summer rainy season. Average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm. During the summer rainy season, the intertropical convergence zone has a decisive influence on the climate. Thunderstorms often occur here, sometimes overcast clouds with prolonged rains remain for a long time. Winter is dry, as subtropical anticyclones dominate this season. In some areas, it does not rain for two to three winter months. In South Asia wet season coincides with the summer monsoon, which brings moisture with Indian Ocean, and in winter Asian continental dry air masses. Humid tropical climate or humid climate rainforest distributed in equatorial latitudes in the basins of the Amazon South America and Congo in Africa, the Malacca Peninsula and the islands South-East Asia... In the humid tropics, the average temperature of any month is not less than + 17 ° C, usually the average monthly temperature is about + 26 ° C. As in the alternately humid tropics, due to the high midday standing of the Sun above the horizon and the same day length throughout the year, seasonal fluctuations temperatures are low. Humid air, cloudiness and dense vegetation prevent nighttime cooling and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below + 37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes.Average annual rainfall in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm, the distribution over the seasons is usually fairly even. Precipitation is mainly associated with the intertropical convergence zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal displacements of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two maximum precipitation during the year, separated by drier periods. Thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics every day. In between, the sun shines in full force.
Highland climates. There is considerable diversity in the highlands climatic conditions due to latitudinal-geographical position, orographic barriers and different exposure of slopes in relation to the Sun and moisture-carrying air currents. Even at the equator, in the mountains, there are snowfields-migrations. The lower boundary of the eternal snow falls towards the poles, reaching sea level in the polar regions. Similarly, other boundaries of high-altitude thermal belts decrease as they approach high latitudes. The windward slopes of the mountain ranges receive more precipitation. On mountain slopes open to the intrusion of cold air, the temperature may drop. In general, the climate of the highlands is characterized by lower temperatures, higher cloudiness, more precipitation and a more complex wind regime than the climate of the plains at the corresponding latitudes. The pattern of seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation in the highlands is usually the same as in the adjacent plains.Climatic zones and local climate features. At the end of the 18th century. a student of MV Lomonosov and one of the first Russian academicians II Lepekhin, outlined a general scheme for the placement of vegetation and fauna on the earth's surface, depending on the thermal (climatic) zones. At the beginning of the 19th century. German naturalist and traveler A. Humboldt established the zonation and altitudinal zonation of vegetation in connection with a change in the amount of heat coming to the Earth.Initially, there were 5 climatic zones on the Earth's surface: one hot, located on both sides of the equator between the northern and southern tropical circles; two temperate - between the tropical and polar circles and two cold, located around the North and South Poles.
Later, when enough information was accumulated about the temperature of the earth's surface in various parts of our planet, the number of climatic zones increased to 7, and the boundaries between them began to be considered not astronomical tropical and polar circles, but lines of equal average temperatures (isotherms). The boundary of the hot zone was considered to be the average annual isotherm of 20 °, of the temperate zones - the isotherm of the warmest month of the year + 10 °. From the cold zones, two more zones of eternal frost were distinguished, the border between which was drawn according to the isotherm of the warmest month of the year, 0 °.
If the Earth's axis of rotation were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit (i.e. to ecliptic), then at each geographic latitude irradiation solar radiation would always remain unchanged. V polar zones, due to the oblique incidence of sunlight, heating the Earth's surface would be as different as possible from heating equatorial zone normally falling sunlight. Then the climate on the whole Earth would most of all depend on geographic latitude(i.e. from the angular distance to the equator). The relatively small tilt of the Earth's axis of rotation of the Earth leads to a change in the radiation flux from the Sun at each latitude during the year (i.e., during the Earth's revolution around the Sun). This change is especially strong at the poles.
(polar zones ), in which the duration of the night exceeds a day. In contrast, near the equator, the Sun may climax at its zenith. Depending on the limits of possible positions of the Sun above the horizon during the year, it is conventionally accepted to divide the Earth into heat belts: hot (between the latitudes of the tropics from -23.5 ° to + 23.5 °) and two cold ones, in which the northern and southern latitudes exceed 66.5 °. The rest of the Earth, between hot and cold, are called temperate zones. Now, using data on the temperature and the amount of incoming solar energy (radiation), 13 climatic zones are distinguished, which are usually called geographical: arctic, antarctic, subarctic, subantarctic, temperate northern and southern, subtropical northern and southern, tropical northern and southern, subequatorial northern and southern, equatorial. Climatic zones, depending mainly on geographical latitude, are well traced both on land and in the ocean.Air temperature. Air temperature - the degree of heating of the air, determined using thermometers and thermographs, is one of the most important characteristics of the weather and climate, which has a direct effect on humans, animals, plants, on the operation of mechanisms, etc. Maximum temperature+ 58 ° С was noted in September 1922 in the Tripoli region ( North Africa), minimum –89 ° С in July 1983 at Vostok station in Antarctica.The air temperature largely depends on how the sun's rays hit a given area of the earth's surface. The surface heats up and begins to transfer heat to the atmosphere. The temperature difference creates air pressure drops on the earth's surface. Pressure drops create a movement of air called by the wind... Zones of high and low pressure arise. When there is a difference in atmospheric pressure, air moves from high-pressure zones to low-pressure zones in order to equalize the pressure over the entire surface.
Areas of high and low pressure constantly move along the earth's surface, creating air movement and carrying air masses with them. When two air masses with different characteristics meet, the air cannot move freely, and a kind of border is formed between them, called the atmospheric front. The weather in the areas of action of atmospheric fronts is accompanied by cloudiness, precipitation, an increase in wind speed and a sharp change in air temperature.
Going through earthly atmosphere and meeting clouds, dust and water vapor on their way, the sun's rays are partially absorbed or reflected into world space. Only about 40% of the solar energy arriving at the upper boundary of the atmosphere reaches the earth's surface. At the same time, the incoming radiant energy of the Sun provides the earth's surface with light, heat and energy for almost all chemical transformations of earthly matter that take place on the earth's surface. The amount of incoming solar energy naturally decreases from the equator to the poles, depending on the angle of incidence of the sun's rays and the length of their path through the atmosphere. Atmospheric heat also changes in the same direction.
The surface of the Earth has a different reflectivity of the sun's rays falling on it (value albedo). For this reason, different parts of the surface absorb heat differently and heat up. Uneven heating of the earth's surface sets in motion air and water masses, striving to equalize the temperature. Interrelated air and sea currents transfer a huge amount of heat from place to place. Warm and cold sea currents play an especially important role in the transfer (advection) of heat, since water absorbs and accumulates heat much more than air. Therefore, greater deviations from average temperatures are observed on the sea coasts.
Seasonal climatic phenomena. Due to the uneven distribution of solar heat and atmospheric precipitation on the earth's surface, the earth's climate is very diverse. The famous scientist B.P. Alisov identified 13 climatic zones on Earth, which differ from each other in temperature conditions and air masses. The main climatic zones correspond to the distribution of four types of air masses. Especially large temperature contrasts at the Earth's surface are between the equator and the poles due to the difference in the arrival of solar energy at different latitudes. The equatorial climate zone is located in the equatorial region. It is dominated by equatorial air and reduced Atmosphere pressure... V tropical zones tropical air, high pressure, descending air movement prevail. In temperate zones, westerly winds prevail. It is much colder here than in the tropical zones. Transition belts are located between the rest of the belts. The prefix "sub" in translation from Latin means "under". Subequatorial belt- the subequatorial belt, etc. V transition belts air masses change with the season. The distribution of temperature is influenced by the location of the continents and oceans. Due to high heat capacity and thermal conductivity ocean waters the oceans significantly mitigate the fluctuations in temperature that result from changes in solar radiation during the year. In this regard, in the middle and high latitudes, the air temperature over the oceans is noticeably lower in summer than over the continents, and higher in winter.Weather forecasting. Present weather forecasts (ranging from 0 to 6–12 hours) are based on an observationally intensive approach and are called now weather forecasts. Traditionally, nowcasting has concentrated on the analysis and extrapolation of observed meteorological fields, with particular emphasis on mesoscale cloud and precipitation fields derived from satellite and radar data. Present weather forecast products are especially valuable in the event of mesoscale adverse weather conditions associated with strong convection and intense cyclones. In the case of tropical cyclones, nowcasting is an important approach to detection and subsequent short-term prediction, which provides forecast validity in some cases beyond 24 hours.The numerical (hydrodynamic) method of weather forecasting is based on the mathematical solution of a system of complete equations of hydrodynamics and obtaining predictive pressure and temperature fields for certain periods of time. Computing centers Moscow, Washington, Tokyo, Reiding (European Forecasting Center) use various numerical schemes for the development of large-scale atmospheric processes. The accuracy of numerical forecasts depends on the speed of calculation of computing systems, on the quantity and quality of information received from weather stations. The more data, the more accurate the calculation.
The synoptic method for making weather forecasts is based on the analysis of weather maps. The essence of this method consists in a simultaneous survey of the state of the atmosphere over a vast territory, which makes it possible to determine the nature of the development of atmospheric processes and the further most probable change in weather conditions in the area of interest. Such a survey is carried out with the help of weather maps, on which meteorological observation data are plotted at different heights, as well as at the surface of the earth, carried out simultaneously according to the same program at different points. the globe... Based on a detailed analysis of these maps, the forecaster determines the further conditions for the development of atmospheric processes in a certain period of time and calculates the characteristics of meteorological elements - temperature, wind, cloudiness, precipitation, etc.
Statistical forecasting methods allow predicting the weather condition for a certain future period of time based on the past and present state of the atmosphere, i.e. predict changes in various meteorological elements in the future.
In operational practice, forecasters use several methods, sometimes differing in a number of parameters, so the last word always remains with the forecaster, who chooses the best, from his point of view, forecasting method. An integrated approach is often chosen - the use of several particular methods of forecasting the same characteristic of the state of the atmosphere at once in order to select the final formulation of the forecast.
Materials on the Internet: Mazur I.I., Rukin M.D. Weather analogy... Economics, 2003
http://science.nasa.gov
http://ciencia.nasa.gov/
http://www.noaa.gov/
Khabutdinov Yu.G., Shantalinsky K.M. Meteorology and climatology: The study of the atmosphere... Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.
http://spaceweather.com
Edward Kononovich
LITERATURE Eris Chaisson, Steve McMillan Astronomy today... Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, 2002It has some influence on the climate of Russia. Despite its enormous size, its impact is limited to a relatively narrow strip of land along the Far Eastern seas. This is due to the fact that the ocean is located to the east of our country, over which the western transport of air masses dominates in the temperate latitudes. High mountains along the coasts also prevent the penetration of Pacific air masses into the interior of the country. In winter, an elevated region (Asian maximum) forms over the cold surface of the continent, from where air rushes towards the relatively heated ocean (winter monsoon). Influence of air masses The Pacific clearly affects only in summer. At this time, there is a high pressure region over the ocean, and low pressure over land. As a result, there is a movement of sea air masses to land in the form of the summer monsoon.
In the central and northern parts of the East European Plain to the north of the spur of increased pressure, western air currents dominate from the Atlantic Ocean. These air masses always bring moisture in the form of snow or rain. But their temperatures are different. If the southwestern winds bring thaws in winter, then the northwestern ones bring relatively cold air from the regions of the North Atlantic and.
Large numbers move over most of the European Plain during the winter. They arise along the polar front, passing west of our country over. From here, cyclones move eastward, passing over the Western and Eastern Europe... Space and ground control over their movement makes it possible to predict the weather in the European part of the country.
With the interaction of continental and sea air masses of temperate latitudes, a polar front is often formed in the central part of the East European Plain. In the rear of the cyclones, which cross the plain from west to east, the cold ones flow southward. Thus, over the territory of the East European Plain, there is an intense interaction of Atlantic and Arctic air masses, sea and continental air of temperate latitudes. Therefore, the weather here is most often unstable and very contrasting, with frequent changes of cold weather and thaws. During several winters, it can change from a few degrees of heat to 21-24 degrees of frost, and rain will be replaced by snow. Such a change is accompanied by thaws and, extremely adversely affecting economic activity of people. Suffers from ice; thaws can lead to the death of winter crops. The alternation of frost and thaw leads to the destruction of roads and various structures. Intense cyclonic activity also leads to the dissimilarity of winter weather. different years... For example, in Moscow in January 1988 and 1990. temperatures rose to + 4 ° С, and in 1940 they dropped to -42 ° С.
Warm Atlantic air masses, moving eastward, gradually cool down. Therefore, over the European territory of Russia, they have a meridional direction. Over Eastern Siberia, the isotherms have a closed ring-shaped character, reflecting the continental climate of this territory. The Pacific Ocean has less warming effect on the continent compared to. Therefore, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, isotherms are located meridionally only within a narrow strip. Over the southern regions of the country, isotherms extend latitudinally in accordance with the direction of change in the value of total solar radiation and radiation balance.
In most of Russia, precipitation falls in the winter as snow. In the North Caucasus, the thickness of the snow cover usually does not exceed 10 cm; in the Kaliningrad region, in - up to 10-30 cm.In the north of the European Plain, northeast Western Siberia, on Sakhalin - 80-90 cm, and on east coast In Kamchatka, the thickness of the snow cover reaches 120-160 cm. The duration of the snow cover is also very different - from several days in a number of Caspian regions to 260 days. Snow is of great importance for natural processes and economic activities on the territory of our country. It creates moisture reserves that are used by plants in spring and early summer. Thanks to the snow, winter crops can be grown in the European part of the country. In spring, most rivers experience floods due to melting snow.
In summer, the radiation balance is positive throughout Russia. The continent heats up more than the oceans, and an area of reduced pressure is established over it. At the same time, areas of increased pressure are growing over the oceans: the North Atlantic (Azores) and North Pacific (Hawaiian) highs. The increased pressure continues to exist above (Arctic maximum). From the side of these highs, air currents rush to the continent. The flow of sea air is most clearly expressed in the Far East, where a southeastern air transport is established in summer - the summer monsoon. It's colder here and therefore heavier sea air interacts with continental air. As a result, frontal processes arise, with the passage of which heavy showers (monsoon rains) are associated on Sakhalin, in and the Primorsky Territories. Quite often, powerful cyclones come here in the form of arising on tropical fronts outside our country. Monsoon rains are accompanied. Floods are often catastrophic, especially in the river basins and the Ussuri and Sakhalin.
Air from the north moves far south over the plains of Western Siberia. South of Central Asia, above the territory, there is a center of low pressure (South Asian minimum), to which the northern air currents rush. Moving to the south, the arctic air warms up, dries up and gradually transforms into continental air of temperate latitudes. Over the plains of Central Asia, it is very dry and forms a desert climate.
The flow of sea air from the Atlantic in the central regions of the European Plain interacts with continental air. As a result, a polar front is formed in the space from the middle reaches of the Dniester to the middle flow. All this is accompanied by intense passage of cyclones. Therefore, in most of the European territory of Russia, the weather in summer, as well as in winter, differs from other territories of the country by great instability. In summer there are often heavy rains and cold snaps. Thus, the average monthly July temperature in Moscow is about + 18 ° С, but in some years it dropped to + 5 ... + 10 ° С or rose to + 30 ... + 34 ° С. To the east of the Volga, and especially beyond, the influence of sea air masses decreases sharply, and here in summer the weather is usually dry and hot.
In contrast to the winter season, summer isotherms almost throughout the territory of Russia stretch from west to east. This is due to the fact that in summer solar radiation is very high and it plays the main role in determining the temperature regime.
On summer season the maximum amount of precipitation falls. This is due high temperatures and therefore the maximum humidity of the local air, from which precipitation falls when it interacts with relatively cold air masses coming from the oceans. To them are added precipitation of convective origin. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the extreme western and eastern regions of Russia. With the distance from the oceans to the interior regions of the country, the amount of precipitation decreases, reaching its minimum (less than 50 mm). On the windward slopes of the mountains, the amount of precipitation increases significantly. Especially many of them fall on the western slopes of the Caucasus Mountains (over 2000 mm).
Climatic conditions vary significantly across the territory of Russia. From north to south, our country is located in, subarctic and temperate. Significant ones are observed within each belt both from west to east (climatic regions) and from north to south (types of climate). Since climatic differences are reflected primarily in the nature of the vegetation cover, the names of the zonal types of climate within climatic regions are given according to the prevailing vegetation cover.
The climate prevails in the arctic zone. Cold arctic air masses are typical here throughout the year. During the polar night, the influx of solar radiation ceases, and temperatures drop to -40 ... -50 ° С. During the polar day, air temperatures rise to 0 ... + 4 ° С. Cloudy weather prevails all year round. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of snow. Most of the land is on earth, and the northern part of Taimyr is covered with snow and.
V subarctic belt forest-tundra types of climate are also distinguished. In the tundra type of climate in summer the temperature is + 4 ... + 11 ° С. Due to the proximity of the Arctic front, cloudy weather prevails throughout the year, and there are often strong winds. There is little precipitation (200-300 mm per year), but due to low evaporation there is excessive moisture territory. In the forest-tundra type of climate, summer temperatures are + 11 ... + 14 ° С. The annual precipitation also increases to 400 mm.
There are several types of climate in the temperate climatic zone. Largest area occupy territories with a taiga climate, with cold winters and cool summers. The average temperature in July is + 15 ... + 20 ° С. Moderate amount of precipitation (300-600 mm per year). Precipitation prevails over evaporation. It lasts all winter.
The climate is presented mainly in the areas where the Atlantic sea air penetrates frequently. Summers are warm and winters are mild with frequent thaws. The annual amount of precipitation is greater than in, and amounts to 600-700 mm per year.
Monsoon climate mixed forests The Far East covers Amur region and Primorsky Territory. As in the mixed European plain, the leading role in its formation belongs to the sea air of temperate latitudes. But sea air comes from the Pacific Ocean only in summer. In winter, cold strong winds blow from the mainland. In the second half of summer there are heavy monsoon rains.
In the forest-steppe type of climate, the average July temperatures rise to + 19 ... + 21 ° С. The amount of precipitation decreases and the moisture balance becomes negative. This type of climate is characterized by unstable moisture - dry years are replaced by wet ones, droughts and dry winds are frequent.
Summer temperatures rise. Average July temperatures reach + 21 ... + 23 ° С. The annual amount of precipitation is reduced to 300 mm. The evaporation rate is 2-3 times higher than the amount of precipitation.
The Caspian lowland has a climate and deserts. Summers are very hot, average July temperatures reach + 25 ... + 29 ° С. In winter, cold air masses penetrate the open plains from the north, therefore, despite the southern position of the territory, it is cold here and average January temperatures drop to -10 ... -15 ° С. There are thaws. Strong winds are frequent in winter. The amount of precipitation is 100-300 mm per year, which is 10-15 times less than the evaporation rate. Cloudless skies and low relative air temperatures are accompanied by sharp daily fluctuations in soil and air temperatures. All these territories differ from other regions of our country in the abundance of solar heat and light. This makes it possible to grow here a number of the most valuable agricultural crops, primarily cotton on irrigated lands.
Small spaces Black Sea coast(territory Krasnodar Territory, districts of Anapa, Novorossiysk, Tuapse, Sochi, Adler) belong to subtropical belt, to the climate of the humid Mediterranean subtropics. January temperature varies from + 2 ° С (Anapa) to + 6 ° С (Sochi). To the north of Tuapse, the annual precipitation is 1200 mm, but rapidly decreases to 800 - 900 mm in the Gelendzhik region and to 400 mm in the Anapa-Novorossiysk region. In the western part of the Adler district and in the south of the Lazarevsky district of the Krasnodar Territory, on the slopes facing the sea (up to a height
600 m), the amount of precipitation reaches 2000 - 2400 mm. Summers are warm, but humid; winters are also warm and humid. The average temperature in June - July rises to + 23 ... + 24 ° С and such values do not change during August - September. The average minimum air temperature in the low foothill zone (up to an altitude of 1000m) is everywhere above + 15 ° С. A stable snow cover is formed only from the height of the Black Sea coast, 600 - 800 m, the duration of which increases with height and reaches the maximum values of 50 - 70 cm at the level of 1100 - 1300 m.Wet snow falls on the coast, which lasts from several hours to 1 - 2 days. Wet snow causes great destruction. Under the weight of the snow and strong winds("Novorossiyskaya bora") trees are breaking, wires of communication lines and power transmission lines are torn. Such a phenomenon was observed in the Sochi region in 1911 (from February 3 to 5), when the snow fell formed a cover 80 cm high, and on December 18 - 20, 1997. The speed reaches 42 - 47 m / s even at low temperatures. On December 18 - 20, 1997, the temperature dropped to -21 ° С, which led to huge destruction of industrial facilities, settlements and was accompanied by human casualties.
The climate has a great impact on many of the most important sectors of economic activity and human life. It is especially important to take into account the climatic features of the territory when organizing production. Crops can only give high sustainable yields if they are sown in accordance with the climatic conditions of the area. For example, growing cotton requires a long growing season, large amounts of solar heat and moisture. But moisture should not come in the form of rain and snow. Therefore, for the cultivation of cotton, irrigation is necessary. In areas where there is a lot of heat and a lot of rain, cotton should not be grown. In these areas, valuable subtropical crops such as lemons, tangerines, and tea are grown. Winter wheat can be sown only where the snow cover is stable during the winter and its thickness is at least 20-30 cm. In the steppe and forest-steppe climate, you can get good harvests of corn, sugar beet and sunflower. In the humid north, where the supply of solar heat is limited, rye, oats, potatoes, onions, and cabbage are grown.
All kinds modern transport very much depend on. Storms, fogs, drifting ice make navigation difficult. and fogs make it difficult, and sometimes even become an insurmountable obstacle to aviation. Therefore, the safety of the movement of sea and air ships is largely ensured by weather forecasts. For smooth movement railway trains in winter you have to deal with snow drifts. For this, forest belts have been planted along all the roads of the country. Fog and ice on the roads interfere with the movement of vehicles. They are especially dangerous on mountain slopes.
Climatic conditions have to be taken into account when building houses and technical structures. So, in all regions of Siberia with severe frosts, triple glazing of windows is used. Houses in the Kaliningrad region usually have peaked roofs, on which rainwater quickly flows down. In arid regions North Caucasus roofs are flat as they help trap and use moisture from occasional rains. The duration of the heating season and the methods of heating dwellings, public and industrial buildings depend on climatic conditions.
Areas with the most favorable climate for human life and health are used as healing areas - health resorts. These are the resorts of the Caucasian coasts of the Black and the Kaliningrad region, many mountainous areas and even deserts, where climate is used as the main remedy (climatotherapy).
Climate and weather processes increasingly have to be taken into account when organizing the protection of atmospheric air from pollution. To combat air pollution in factories and factories, treatment facilities are being built at thermal power plants. Special devices are used in vehicles - catalysts, which reduce waste emissions into the atmosphere. But all these methods do not yet give a complete prevention of atmospheric air pollution. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the influence of atmospheric processes on the degree of air pollution. When placing residential areas and industrial enterprises, the prevailing wind directions should be taken into account. Industrial plants should be located on the leeward side so that their emissions do not enter the city.
In anticyclones, descending air currents dominate, which lead to the accumulation of pollutants in the surface air layers. Obviously, under anticyclonic weather conditions, enterprises and transport should sharply reduce emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. In areas of the country where anticyclonic weather conditions prevail, all industrial and transport emissions should be minimal. For this reason, atmospheric pollution is especially dangerous in intermontane basins. Eastern Siberia... But observations show that, despite the measures taken, the problem of air pollution in the country remains very acute. So, for example, emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere industrial enterprises in the first half of 1989 amounted to 29 million tons. That is why the fight against “dirty” production is becoming more and more widespread.
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