What type of climate has a high annual amplitude. Influence of solar radiation

Despite the variety of climatic conditions due to factors such as the height of the terrain and its position in relation to the ocean and prevailing winds, it seems possible to distinguish certain types of climates that exist on the globe. Large areas, located at the same latitude and occupying similar positions on different continents, have a similar climate.
Tropical climates
In this group, there are two types. Equatorial climate characterized by hot and humid weather throughout the year corresponds to areas located on both sides of the equator, up to about 5 ° north and south latitude. A hot tropical climate with pronounced rainy and dry periods prevails between approximately 5 ° and 15 "north and south latitude. In some areas of the South and South-East Asia the so-called tropical monsoon climate prevails, characterized by a particularly clear boundary between the rainy and dry seasons.
Arid climates
There are three types of arid climates. The first is typical for the southern desert regions with low rainfall throughout the year and hot weather, although the air temperature can drop significantly at night. The Sahara and the desert of the Arabian Peninsula are the best examples of such territories. The second type of climate refers to tropical semi-deserts and is characterized by a short rainy period, during which precipitation falls unevenly, depending on the specific area. Such a climate is found, for example, in the driest regions of India and the Sahel region in Africa. The third type is characterized by a pronounced cold season inherent in the inner parts of large continents, at higher latitudes. Some areas of Central Asia and western China are examples.
Warm temperate climate
In this group, two types can be distinguished. In the first case, there is no pronounced rainy season, although there is a large amount of precipitation in summer, and the air temperature remains quite high. Winters are usually mild, with occasional cold spells. A similar climate is typical for most of eastern China and the southeastern states of the United States. The next type of climate is characterized by mild, humid winters and warm or hot summers with little or no rainfall. This climate is called Mediterranean, which indicates its presence in this region. Similar conditions are observed in other areas, such as central regions Chile, California and Western Australia.
Cold temperate climate
In this group, two types are also distinguished. The cool oceanic climate, typical mainly of Northwest Europe, New Zealand and the coastal regions of British Columbia (Canada), is characterized by rainfall during the weight of the months of the year and low temperature ranges. Cold continental climate with hot summers and cold winters, dominates most of the Eastern and Central Europe and in the eastern regions of central Canada and the United States.
Subarctic climate, or tundra climate
It is characterized by long and very cold winters. Summer season short, however, during this period the days become longer and the temperature sometimes rises quite high. A similar climate is inherent in areas of central and northern Canada, North-Eastern Europe, as well as most of northern and central Siberia.
Arctic, or polar, climate
Temperatures remain below freezing throughout the year. Greenland and Antarctica are typical examples, but a number of islands in the Arctic Circle, such as South Georgia and Svalbard, have similar climates.
Alpine climate
Regardless of the latitude of the terrain in the mountains, in areas located above the snow line, climatic conditions similar to the arctic and subarctic. This climate, for example, is typical for Tibet and the Himalayas. In Africa, only a few peaks of the mountains of Kenya, Kilimanjaro and the Rwenzori massif have a height sufficient to preserve eternal snow. A similar climate is more common in mountainous areas North and South America.

And asteroids) that have an atmosphere.

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Classified lists. There will be no weather: how the climate declared war on Earth (2017) Documentary project

Andrey Fursov - A planetary restructuring of the climate is in progress

Climate of the Earth (narrated by Vladimir Semyonov)

The projected patterns of change the planet is experiencing are indicative of a global average temperature rise. Esteves and Suzuki also argue that long-term studies have also made it possible to observe, in addition to seasonal variations, annual variations associated with La Niña and El Niño events, observations during periods of La Niña influence, massive cyanobacterial dominance and El Niño influence. Niño, except for cyanobacteria, diatoms and cryptomonads. The collected samples are analyzed in Basic Sanitation laboratories.

These two items were selected to obtain a series of laboratory analysis data. Meteorological data were provided by the Meteorological Station of the Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences of the University of São Paulo. The density of cyanobacteria was used as a representative element of the quality of water for consumption, both for its potential for the formation of cyanotoxins and for its significance in the formation of trihalomethanes with possible health effects. Various time cuts were made to better investigate the interactions and relationships between each of the meteorological variables and the cyanobacterial density.

Climate and its changes.

Did the climate change in the 19th century? Conversation with a colleague from England. 1 part

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Study methods

To draw conclusions about the peculiarities of the climate, long-term series of observations of the weather are needed. V temperate latitudes they use 25-50-year trends, in tropical ones they are shorter. Climatic characteristics are derived from observations of meteorological elements, the most important of which are atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. In addition, they study the duration solar radiation, duration of the frost-free period, visibility range, temperature of the upper layers of soil and water in reservoirs, evaporation of water from earth surface, height and condition of snow cover, all kinds of atmospheric phenomena, total solar radiation, radiation balance and much more.

The applied branches of climatology use the climate characteristics necessary for their purposes:

• in agroclimatology - the sum of the temperatures of the growing season;
• in bioclimatology and technical climatology - effective temperatures;

Complex indicators are also used, determined by several basic meteorological elements, namely, all kinds of coefficients (continental, aridity, moisture), factors, indices.

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements and their complex indicators (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, recurrence periods are considered climatic norms. Discrepancies with them in specific periods are considered deviations from these norms.

Models of general atmospheric circulation are used to assess future climate changes [ ] .

Climatic factors

The planet's climate depends on a whole complex of astronomical and geographical factors that affect the total amount of solar radiation received by the planet, as well as its distribution over seasons, hemispheres and continents. With the onset of the industrial revolution, human activity becomes a climate-forming factor.

Astronomical factors

Astronomical factors include the luminosity of the Sun, the position and motion of the planet Earth relative to the Sun, the angle of inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation to the plane of its orbit, the speed of rotation of the Earth, and the density of matter in the surrounding space. The rotation of the globe around its axis causes daily changes in the weather, the movement of the Earth around the sun and the inclination of the axis of rotation to the orbital plane cause seasonal and latitudinal differences in weather conditions. The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit - affects the distribution of heat between the Northern and Southern hemispheres, as well as the magnitude of seasonal changes. The speed of rotation of the Earth practically does not change, it is a constantly acting factor. Due to the rotation of the Earth, trade winds and monsoons exist, as well as cyclones. [ ]

Geographic factors

Geographic factors include

Influence of solar radiation

The most important element of the climate, influencing the rest of its characteristics, primarily the temperature, is the radiant energy of the Sun. The enormous energy released in the process of nuclear fusion on the Sun is radiated into outer space. Power solar radiation, received by the planet, depends on its size and distance from the Sun. The total flux of solar radiation passing per unit of time through a unit area oriented perpendicular to the flux, at a distance of one astronomical unit from the Sun outside earth's atmosphere, is called the solar constant. In the upper part of the earth's atmosphere, each square meter perpendicular to the sun's rays receives 1.365 W ± 3.4% of solar energy. Energy varies throughout the year due to the ellipticity of the Earth's orbit, with the greatest power absorbed by the Earth in January. Despite the fact that about 31% of the received radiation is reflected back into space, the remainder is enough to support atmospheric and ocean currents, and to provide energy for almost all biological processes on Earth.

The energy received by the earth's surface depends on the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, it is greatest if this angle is right, but most of the earth's surface is not perpendicular to the sun's rays. The inclination of the rays depends on the latitude of the area, time of year and day, it is greatest at noon on June 22 north of the Tropic of Cancer and on December 22 south of the Tropic of Capricorn, in the tropics the maximum (90 °) is reached 2 times a year.

Others the most important factor that determines the latitudinal climatic regime is the length of daylight hours. Beyond the polar circles, i.e. north of 66.5 ° N. NS. and south of 66.5 ° S. NS. the length of daylight hours varies from zero (in winter) to 24 hours in summer, at the equator there is a 12-hour day all year round. Since seasonal changes in inclination angle and day length are more noticeable at higher latitudes, the amplitude of temperature fluctuations during the year decreases from the poles to low latitudes.

The receipt and distribution of solar radiation over the surface of the globe without taking into account the climate-forming factors of a particular area is called the solar climate.

The share of solar energy absorbed by the earth's surface varies markedly depending on cloud cover, surface type and terrain altitude, averaging 46% of that supplied to the upper atmosphere. Constant cloudiness, such as at the equator, reflects most of the incoming energy. A water surface absorbs sunlight (except for very inclined ones) better than other surfaces, reflecting only 4-10%. The share of absorbed energy is above average in deserts located high above sea level, due to the thinner atmosphere that scatters the sun's rays.

Circulation of the atmosphere

In the most heated places, the heated air has a lower density and rises upward, thus forming a zone of low atmospheric pressure. In a similar way, a zone of increased pressure is formed in colder places. Air movement occurs from a zone of high atmospheric pressure to a zone of low atmospheric pressure. Since the closer to the equator and further from the poles the terrain is located, the better it warms up, in the lower layers of the atmosphere there is a predominant movement of air from the poles to the equator. However, the Earth also rotates on its axis, so the Coriolis force acts on the moving air and deflects this movement to the west. In the upper layers of the troposphere, reverse motion is formed air masses: from the equator to the poles. Its Coriolis force constantly bends to the east, and the farther, the more. And in areas about 30 degrees north and south latitude, movement becomes directed from west to east parallel to the equator. As a result, the air trapped in these latitudes has nowhere to go at such an altitude, and it sinks down to the ground. The region of the highest pressure forms here. Thus, trade winds are formed - constant winds blowing towards the equator and to the west, and since the turning force acts constantly, when approaching the equator, the trade winds blow almost parallel to it. The air currents of the upper layers, directed from the equator to the tropics, are called anti-trade winds. The trade winds and anti-trade winds seem to form an air wheel, along which a continuous circulation of air is maintained between the equator and the tropics. There is an intertropical convergence zone between the trade winds of the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

During the year, this zone shifts from the equator to the warmer summer hemisphere. As a result, in some places, especially in the pool Indian Ocean, where the main direction of air transport in winter is from west to east, in summer it is replaced by the opposite one. These air transfers are called tropical monsoons. Cyclonic activity connects the zone of tropical circulation with circulation in temperate latitudes, and between them there is an exchange of warm and cold air. As a result of inter-latitude air exchange, heat is transferred from low latitudes to high latitudes and cold from high latitudes to low latitudes, which leads to the maintenance of thermal equilibrium on Earth.

In fact, the circulation of the atmosphere is constantly changing, both due to seasonal changes in the distribution of heat on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere, and due to the formation and movement of cyclones and anticyclones in the atmosphere. Cyclones and anticyclones move generally towards the east, while cyclones deviate towards the poles, and anticyclones - away from the poles.

Thus, the following are formed:

This pressure distribution corresponds to westerly transport in temperate latitudes and easterly transport in tropical and high latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, the zoning of atmospheric circulation is better expressed than in the Northern, since there are mainly oceans. The wind in the trade winds changes little and these changes do not change the nature of the circulation. On average, about 80 times a year in some areas of the intertropical convergence zone, tropical cyclones develop, which abruptly change the established wind regime and the state of the weather in the tropics, less often outside them. In extratropical latitudes, cyclones are less intense than tropical ones. The development and passage of cyclones and anticyclones is an everyday phenomenon. The meridional components of atmospheric circulation associated with cyclonic activity in extratropical latitudes change rapidly and frequently. However, it happens that for several days and sometimes even weeks, extensive and high cyclones and anticyclones hardly change their position. Then, oppositely directed long-term meridional air transfers occur, sometimes in the entire thickness of the troposphere, which spread over large areas and even over the entire hemisphere. Therefore, in extratropical latitudes, two main types of circulation are distinguished over the hemisphere or its large sector: zonal, with a predominance of zonal, most often western transport, and meridional, with adjacent air transport towards low and high latitudes. The meridian type of circulation carries out a much greater inter-latitudinal heat transfer than the zonal one.

The circulation of the atmosphere also ensures the distribution of moisture both between climatic zones and within them. The abundance of precipitation in equatorial belt is provided not only by its own high evaporation, but also by the transfer of moisture (due to the general circulation of the atmosphere) from tropical and subequatorial belts. V subequatorial belt the circulation of the atmosphere ensures the change of seasons. When the monsoon blows from the sea, it rains heavily. When the monsoon blows from the dry land side, the dry season sets in. Tropical belt drier than the equatorial and subequatorial, since the general circulation of the atmosphere transfers moisture to the equator. In addition, winds from east to west prevail, therefore, due to moisture evaporated from the surface of the seas and oceans, in eastern parts there is a lot of rainfall on the continents. Further to the west, there is not enough rain, the climate becomes arid. This is how whole belts of deserts are formed, such as the Sahara or the deserts of Australia.

Climate types

The classification of the Earth's climates can be made either directly by climatic characteristics (classification by V. Köppen), or based on the features of the general circulation of the atmosphere (classification by BP Alisov), or by the nature of geographic landscapes (classification by L. S. Berg). The climatic conditions of the area are primarily determined by the so-called. solar climate - an influx of solar radiation to the upper boundary of the atmosphere, depending on latitude and different at different times and seasons. Nevertheless, the boundaries of climatic zones not only do not coincide with the parallels, but do not even always bend around Earth, while there are zones isolated from each other with the same type of climate. The proximity of the sea, the atmospheric circulation system and the height above sea level also have an important influence.

The classification of climates proposed by the Russian scientist W. Köppen (1846-1940) is widespread in the world. It is based on the temperature regime and the degree of moisture. The classification has been improved several times, and in the edition of G. T. Trevart (English) Russian there are six classes with sixteen types of climate. Many types of climates according to the Köppen climate classification are known by names associated with characteristic of this type vegetation. Each type has precise parameters of temperature values, the amount of winter and summer precipitation, this makes it easier to assign a certain place to a certain type of climate, so the Köppen classification has become widespread.

On both sides of the low-pressure belt along the equator, there are zones with increased atmospheric pressure... The oceans are dominated here trade wind with constant east winds, the so-called. trade winds. The weather here is relatively dry (about 500 mm of precipitation per year), with moderate cloud cover, in summer the average temperature is 20-27 ° С, in winter - 10-15 ° С. Precipitation increases sharply on the windward slopes of mountainous islands. Tropical cyclones are relatively rare.

These oceanic areas correspond to zones tropical deserts on land from dry tropical climate. average temperature the warmest month in the Northern Hemisphere is about 40 ° С, in Australia up to 34 ° С. Northern Africa and the interior of California have the most high temperatures on Earth - 57-58 ° С, in Australia - up to 55 ° С. In winter, temperatures drop to 10-15 ° C. Temperature changes during the day are very large, they can exceed 40 ° C. There is little rainfall - less than 250 mm, often no more than 100 mm per year.

In many tropical regions - Equatorial africa, South and Southeast Asia, northern Australia - the dominance of the trade winds is replaced subequatorial, or tropical monsoon climate ... Here, in the summer, the intertropical convergence zone moves further north of the equator. As a result, the eastern trade wind transport of air masses is replaced by the western monsoon, which is associated with the bulk of the precipitation falling here. The predominant vegetation types are monsoon forests, forest savannas and tall grass savannas

In the subtropics

In the zones of 25-40 ° northern latitude and southern latitude, subtropical types of climate prevail, which form in the conditions of alternating prevailing air masses - tropical in summer, moderate in winter. Average monthly air temperature in summer exceeds 20 ° С, in winter - 4 ° С. On land, quantity and mode atmospheric precipitation strongly depend on the distance from the oceans, as a result, landscapes and natural zones vary greatly. On each of the continents, three main climatic zones.

In the west of the continents dominates Mediterranean climate(semi-dry subtropics) with summer anticyclones and winter cyclones. Summers are hot (20-25 ° С), little cloudy and dry, it rains in winter, relatively cold (5-10 ° С). Average annual quantity precipitation - about 400-600 mm. In addition to the Mediterranean itself, such a climate prevails in South Bank Crimea, western California, southern Africa, Southwest Australia. The predominant type of vegetation is Mediterranean forests and shrubs.

In the east of the continents dominates monsoon subtropical climate... The temperature conditions of the western and eastern outskirts of the continents differ little. Abundant precipitation, brought by the oceanic monsoon, falls here mainly in summer.

Temperate zone

In the zone of year-round prevalence of moderate air masses, intense cyclonic activity causes frequent and significant changes in air pressure and temperature. The prevalence of westerly winds is most noticeable over the oceans and in the Southern Hemisphere. In addition to the main seasons - winter and summer, there are noticeable and rather long transitional ones - autumn and spring. Due to the large differences in temperature and humidity, many researchers attribute the climate of the northern part temperate zone to the subarctic (Köppen's classification), or separate into an independent climatic zone- boreal.

Subpolar

Intense cyclonic activity occurs over the subpolar oceans, the weather is windy and cloudy, and there is a lot of precipitation. Subarctic climate dominates the north of Eurasia and North America, characterized by dry (precipitation no more than 300 mm per year), long and cold winters, and cold summers. Despite little rainfall low temperatures and permafrost contribute to waterlogging. Similar climate Southern hemisphere - Subantarctic climate captures land only on the subantarctic islands and on Graham Land. In the Köppen classification, the subpolar or boreal climate is understood as the climate of the taiga growth zone.

Polar

Polar climate characterized by year-round negative air temperatures and scant precipitation (100-200 mm per year). It dominates the Arctic Ocean and Antarctica. The mildest in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic, the harshest - on the plateau of East Antarctica. In the Köppen classification, to polar climate include not only the ice climate zone, but also the climate of the tundra zone.

Climate and man

The climate has a decisive effect on the water regime, soil, flora and fauna, on the possibility of cultivating crops. Accordingly, the possibilities of settling people, the development of agriculture, industry, energy and transport, the living conditions and health of the population depend on the climate. Heat loss by the human body occurs through radiation, heat conduction, convection and evaporation of moisture from the surface of the body. With a certain increase in these heat losses, a person experiences unpleasant sensations and the possibility of illness appears. In cold weather, these losses increase, dampness and strong wind enhance the cooling effect. During weather changes, stress becomes more frequent, appetite worsens, biorhythms are disrupted and resistance to diseases decreases. The climate determines the linkage of diseases to certain times years and regions, for example, pneumonia and influenza are sick mainly in winter in temperate latitudes, malaria occurs in the humid tropics and subtropics, where climatic conditions favor the breeding of malaria mosquitoes. The climate is also taken into account in healthcare (resorts, epidemic control, public hygiene), and influences the development of tourism and sports. According to information from the history of mankind (famine, floods, abandoned settlements, migrations of peoples), it is possible to restore some climate change of the past .

Anthropogenic changes in the environment of functioning of climate-forming processes change the nature of their course. Human activities have a significant impact on the local climate. The influx of heat due to the combustion of fuel, pollution by industrial products and carbon dioxide, which alter the absorption of solar energy, cause an increase in air temperature, which is noticeable in large cities... Among the anthropogenic processes that have assumed a global character are

see also

Notes (edit)

1. . Archived April 4, 2013.
2. , p. 5.
3. Local climate //: [in 30 volumes] / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov... - 3rd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.
4. Microclimate // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: [in 30 volumes] / Ch. ed.