Lecture 3. Natural conditions as a factor in the development of human society

Plan:

The concept of natural conditions and their characteristics The influence of natural conditions on life and economic activity people Adverse and dangerous natural phenomena

1. Natural conditions have played and continue to play a crucial role in the life and development of human society. Undoubtedly, scientific and technological progress has significantly influenced the growth of the power of man in relation to nature. Since 1992 - the year of the UN Conference on the Environment in Rio de Janeiro - it has become a generally accepted idea that the primary condition for the sustainable development of individual countries and all mankind as a whole is the totality of natural factors. Consideration and adequate understanding of the role and place of natural factors of development in modern conditions are of vital importance in the field of management at almost all territorial levels. The term "natural factors" usually includes the following categories: natural conditions, Natural resources, landscape sustainability and ecological situation. Natural conditions- a set of the most important natural characteristics of the territory, reflecting the main features of the components of the natural environment or local natural phenomena. They affect the life and economic activities of the population, the settlement of the population, the development and placement of productive forces, their specialization. They determine the cost price, and, consequently, the competitiveness of the manufactured products, which is especially important for countries with a significant prevalence of extreme natural features, which includes Russia. Among the components of the natural environment, the characteristics of natural conditions are, as a rule, considered climate, geological environment, surface and underground waters, soils, biota, landscape or landscape conditions in general. The specific nature of the natural conditions of the area depends on its location in a particular natural zone, the presence in it of a certain combination of natural landscapes. Natural areas- large divisions geographic envelope expressed as wide belts earth surface, united by the similarity of characteristics such as the number solar radiation, moisture, type of soil, vegetation and fauna. Natural landscapes- These are relatively homogeneous areas of the geographic envelope, characterized by a natural combination of its components and phenomena, the nature of their interrelationships. Along with natural, anthropogenic, or cultural, landscapes are also distinguished, characterized by one or another degree of purposeful or spontaneous transformation of the original natural complexes. Landscape- main category territorial division natural environment. The processes of exchange of matter and energy between landscape components (rocks, soils, vegetation, etc.) determine their structure. Both natural and anthropogenic landscapes are subject to rhythmic and irreversible changes, therefore both are objects of regulation in human activity. Among the landscape-forming factors that form the most important properties of landscapes, there are external (cosmic and geodynamic) and internal (manifested in the processes of interaction of individual natural components) factors. All landscape-forming factors are also subdivided into zonal (climate, soil, vegetation) and azonal (relief, geological structure). In management in general and in regional politics in particular, landscapes are considered as the natural basis of life and economic activity of people. This takes into account such their features as genesis, type, resistance to anthropogenic influences, aesthetic advantages, the degree of disturbance or preservation, the nature of anthropogenic influences. The selection of natural zones and landscapes is based on the climatic features of the territory, which are manifested primarily in the ratio of heat and moisture. Climate- this is the average long-term weather regime in a particular area. As a result of various natural processes continuously occurring in the atmosphere, the climate of the Earth and its individual regions is constantly changing, noticeably affecting people's lives. The most important climatic factor is warmth. Thermal resources determine the vigor of plant growth. The amount of heat required for the complete completion of the growing cycle (growth period) is called the biological sum of temperatures. It should be emphasized that this directly affects the country's economy, economy, many aspects of the life of the population and politics. Consequence climatic conditions is permafrost, sometimes called permafrost, widespread in the states of the northern hemisphere. Specificity permafrost must be taken into account when creating engineering structures: pipelines, bridges, railways, etc. Water (moisture), primarily in the form of precipitation, is the second most important climatic factor. The lack of water, as well as its excess, adversely affect the development of agriculture and the economy as a whole, bringing significant costs to the budget. The most important factor in the formation of natural specificity is relief... Influencing all components of the natural environment, it contributes to the emergence of various landscapes. Over the past centuries, the formation of anthropogenic relief has become widespread. A person influences the relief directly (mining and technical work, hydraulic construction, etc.) and indirectly - through other components of the natural environment. For example, deforestation in savannahs contributes to desertification and the development of aeolian landforms; overgrazing leads to increased water erosion, etc. For agriculture and a number of other spheres of the economy, soil conditions are of paramount importance. The soil Is a special natural body formed as a result of the transformation of the surface layer crust, air and biota and combines the properties of animate and inanimate nature. The value properties of the soil are reflected in its fertility - the ability to provide plants with assimilable nutrients and moisture and create conditions for harvesting. Natural and artificial fertility is distinguished. A comparative qualitative assessment of soils according to the developed scales in relation to a given area is carried out using appraisal. Biota is understood as a historically formed aggregate of living organisms inhabiting any territory, i.e. flora and fauna of this area. The characterization of the natural conditions of the area also includes an assessment of flora and fauna. Vegetation Is a set of plant communities (phytocenoses). This or that type of vegetation has a significant impact on the development of the economy - agriculture, forestry, and other opportunities. Animal world Is a set of animal communities that live within a particular territory. 2. Natural conditions affect almost all aspects of the daily life of the population, especially its work, rest and life, people's health and the possibility of their adaptation to new, unusual conditions. The total assessment of natural conditions is determined by the level of their comfort for a person. To measure it, up to 30 parameters are used (duration of climatic periods, temperature contrast, climate humidity, wind regime, the presence of natural foci of infectious diseases, etc.). According to the level of comfort, there are:

extreme territories (polar regions, high mountainous areas high latitudes, etc.); uncomfortable territories - areas with harsh natural conditions, unsuitable for the life of a non-indigenous, unadapted population; are subdivided into cold humid ( arctic deserts, tundra), arid areas (deserts and semi-deserts), as well as mountainous areas; hypercomfortable territories - areas with limited favorable conditions for the resettlement population; subdivided into boreal (forests temperate zone) and semiarid (steppes of the temperate zone); precomfortable territories - areas with slight deviations from the natural optimum for the formation of a permanent population; comfortable territories - areas with almost ideal environmental conditions for the life of the population; typical for the southern part of the temperate zone, etc.

The concept of natural conditions in itself presupposes one or another type of economic activity. Natural conditions predetermine the economic diversity of human activity, the sectoral specialization of individual regions, the rate of economic and social development. At the same time, the influence of natural conditions on the national economy is ambiguous and largely depends on the level of development and economic situation country. Natural conditions are paramount for those industries National economy that function under open air... First of all, this is agriculture, forestry and water management. Their specialization and development efficiency are directly related to soil fertility, climate, and water regime of the territory. Transport and many other sectors of the economy are also influenced by them. For example, when organizing the extraction of minerals, not only reserves and quality characteristics are taken into account, but also the conditions of their occurrence, which directly affect the method, scale and cost of extraction. In practice, it often happens that the most economical are not the richest, but the relatively poor, but located in more favorable natural conditions, deposits. Almost all types of construction are highly dependent on natural conditions. Its cost is predetermined by such terrain parameters as the strength and water content of soils, the degree of seismicity, waterloggedness of the territory, the presence of permafrost, mountainous terrain, etc. The natural parameters of the territory have a significant impact on the organization of municipal utilities. So, the cost of heating, water supply, sewerage, lighting of dwellings, as well as their construction, also differ significantly depending on the climate and engineering-geological conditions. In the northern regions of Russia, the heating season lasts up to 10 months, and in the south of the country 4-5 months. The question of natural conditions for agriculture deserves special attention. The specialization and efficiency of the agricultural sector of the economy are directly related to the natural fertility of soils, climate, and water regime of the territory. The methods of growing various crops and breeding farm animals depend on agro-climatic conditions - climate resources in relation to the needs of agriculture. Agroclimatic conditions differ significantly from place to place. Understanding the patterns of agroclimatic differentiation is necessary not only for management agricultural sector the national economy, but also for the purposes of political and economic analysis. It has been calculated, for example, that the agro-climatic potential of the United States is approximately 2.5 times higher than that of Russia. This implies that for equal costs, the productivity of US agriculture will always be higher. When assessing agroclimatic conditions and for a number of other practical purposes, they use data on zonal differences in the country's territory. 3. A specific form of natural conditions are unfavorable and dangerous natural phenomena or natural disasters inherent in certain localities.Disaster Is dangerous a natural phenomenon causing emergency situations. Under emergency means a critical situation in a certain area, which has developed as a result of a natural disaster or a man-made accident and entailed human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of normal living conditions of people. The most common and at the same time dangerous for mankind natural disasters include earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes and storms, tornadoes, typhoons, landslides, landslides, mudflows, avalanches, forest and peat fires. Typical examples of unfavorable natural phenomena are droughts, frosts, severe frosts, thunderstorms, heavy or prolonged rains, hail and some others. By genesis, all the main types of unfavorable and dangerous natural phenomena are subdivided into hydrometeorological and geological-geomorphological. Among the less common are solar-space (magnetic storms, falling meteorites), biogeochemical (soil salinization, biogeochemical corrosion) and biological (reproduction of agricultural pests, epizootics, etc.). Floods are among the most common hazards. They threaten almost ¾ of the earth's surface. Typically, rivers experience seasonal floods associated with the manifestation of regular climatic factors, in particular with melting snow (for example, the Lena River). Heavy rain showers often cause catastrophic floods. The largest Chinese river, the Yellow River, is especially famous for its catastrophic floods, in the valley of which more than 80 million people live. More victims are recorded here than in all other regions combined. She holds the most tragic record in the history of mankind: in the fall of 1987, the water level in the Yellow River rose by 20 m. 300 were flooded settlements, about 2 million people were left homeless, the death toll reached 1 million. Floods were and continue to be a formidable and insidious element for man. According to UNESCO, 9 million people have died from them over the past century. The material damage caused by them is also colossal. The most important prerequisite for effective flood protection is their accurate forecast. Flood protection can be active (construction of dams, dams, branch canals, regulation of river beds) or passive (warning and evacuation of people, their use of places that will most likely not be flooded, etc.). Earthquakes- the most significant geological element in its consequences. Every year around 10 thousand people die from them in the world, and material damage, according to far from complete data, reaches 400 million dollars. Earthquakes are generated by seismic shock waves and elastic vibrations of the earth's crust. In addition to natural earthquakes, destructive earthquakes occur and can be caused by human activity - flooding of deep reservoirs, oil production, pumping industrial wastewater into the bowels, creating deep quarries, etc. The destructive force of earthquakes is characterized in conditional intensity points. In Russia, a 12-point intensity scale is adopted, which describes the result of an earthquake. The most catastrophic is the earthquake in the Chinese province of Shaanxi (1556) with the death toll of 830 thousand people. Other widespread geological hazards of exogenous origin include landslides, landslides, mudflows, and coastal abrasion. Despite the undoubted advances in science and technology, the vulnerability of modern society to natural disasters is constantly growing. The number of victims of adverse and dangerous natural phenomena annually increases by about 6%. This is due to rapid population growth and high urban concentration; environmental degradation causing hazardous natural processes. The greatest economic damage in the world is caused by floods, tropical storms, droughts and earthquakes.

Lecture 4. Mineral resources: placement and problems of rational use

Plan:

The concept of natural resources Mineral resources Ecological and economic protection strategy mineral resources

1. Nowadays, there are about 250 types of minerals and almost 200 types of ornamental and precious stones. However, their involvement in economic circulation took place gradually throughout human history. The first metal that became known to man, apparently, was copper. For several millennia, it was widely used for the production of tools, utensils, ornaments, and later for minting coins. Then, about 4 - 4.5 thousand years BC, the Bronze Age began. People learned how to get an alloy of copper and tin. Along with copper, tin and bronze, some other metals and stones were also widely used. First of all, gold. Lead, mercury, sulfur were widely known, such ornamental stones as marble, lapis lazuli, many gems, for example, emerald, turquoise, etc. Gradually, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age, which lasted for about 3.5 thousand years. Throughout the entire period of the Middle Ages and modern times - up to industrial revolutionsXviii – XIXcenturies - the mineral resource base of mankind was made up of approximately the same metals (copper, iron, gold, silver, tin, lead, mercury), as well as ornamental and precious stones. But in the second halfXIXand in the first half of the twentieth century, the composition of this base has undergone very large changes. The widespread use of fossil coal, oil, aluminum, phosphorites, potassium salts, asbestos, diamonds began, and metallic uranium was obtained. A new quantitative and qualitative change in the mineral raw material base of humanity began in the middle of the twentieth century in connection with the scientific and technological revolution. In this case, we are talking primarily about titanium, cobalt, beryllium, lithium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, germanium, tellurium, without which it was practically impossible to develop the most modern industries, which to the greatest extent personify the current stage of scientific and technological revolution. Changes in the biosphere as a result of human activity are rapid. There has been a major qualitative leap in all spheres of people's life - in production, in transport, in the service sector, in military affairs, etc. A person is developing territories that were once inaccessible in climatic and geographic terms: polar zones, high-mountainous areas. The development of human society in all ages has been associated with the use of a variety of resources. The natural environment is a human habitat and the source of all the benefits necessary for his life and production activities. The degree of resource use is determined by the socio-economic needs of society. Moreover, the achievements of science and technology have created the illusion of a sort of isolation of man from nature, and even domination over it. However, this is not the case. To satisfy his needs, modern man needs a much larger amount of resources than before. And mankind is faced with serious problems of nature protection. Undoubtedly, the strongest and most noticeable influence on the state of the environment is exerted, first of all, by industry and agriculture. At the same time, one can single out industries that have a negative impact either on the atmosphere (energy, oil refining, non-ferrous metallurgy), or on land resources(all extractive industries, building materials industry), or polluting the internal and external waters of states (oil production, pulp and paper industry, etc.). certain industries have a negative impact on the natural environment in all directions, causing pollution of water, air, soil. Therefore, it is simply necessary in modern society to pay great attention to the environmental component in the placement, construction and further development of any production. In fact, natural conditions and resources are necessary conditions for the development of both industrial and agricultural production. However, only human society decides how and to what extent these resources will be used and what will remain after us for future generations. Classification of natural resources.There are many classifications of natural resources. So, according to their belonging to a particular natural sphere, the following are allocated: resources of the lithosphere (minerals, land and soil resources); resources of the hydrosphere (glaciers, land and ocean waters, the energy of rivers, ebb and flow); atmospheric resources (climatic and recreational, wind energy); resources of the biosphere (flora and fauna). WITH environmental point of view natural resources are usually subdivided into: inexhaustible (solar energy, wind energy, air, water); exhaustible (mineral resources, soil fertility, plant and animal world). Renewable resources of the biosphere, but they can also become non-renewable with unreasonable use (for example, some species of animals and flora). Ores and all other minerals can be classified as practically non-renewable resources. Resources are also qualified according to the directions of their use. Allocate fuel and energy resources for construction, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, forestry and woodworking, Food Industry etc. Minerals- these are natural mineral formations in the earth's crust of inorganic or organic origin, which at a given level of development of science and technology can be used in the national economy in their natural form as raw materials or after appropriate processing. By their physical state, they are solid, liquid and gaseous, and by their formation - magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic (i.e., transformed). According to the composition and features of use, three main groups of minerals are usually distinguished: combustible, metallic and non-metallic. However, all classifications of natural resources are conditional, since the same minerals (or resources) can be used in different sectors of the national economy. The distribution of natural resources, the degree of their development is characterized by extreme unevenness and is determined by a combination of the influence of natural and social factors. The role of resource factors in economic development is constantly changing. At the initial stages of the development of society, agro-climatic resources played a decisive role. Soil fertility, warm climate favorable for plant cultivation, atmospheric moisture regime– all this allowed the societies of ancient China, Mesopotamia, earlier than others, to step over the barrier of simple reproduction, led to a deepening of the division of labor and the formation early states... Mineral availability has become critical to economic development only in the Middle Ages: the industrial revolution and industrialization that began in many countries introduced new types of mineral resources into the economic circulation. Metallurgy, which laid the foundations for the creation of mass production, and primarily the engineering industries, originated where the deposits coal and iron ore were placed compactly. Countries with such resources– Great Britain (Midland region), France and Germany (Alsace and Lorraine, Ruhr), Russia (Ural)– laid inXvii- Xviiicenturies the base of economic power. The value of relative spatial resources and, above all, profitability geographic location also played a vital role in the development of the economy. Thus, the uniqueness and advantageousness of its geographical position was the main factor in the growth of the political and economic significance of Moscow. Located in a strategically advantageous area, which had connections with both the North and the South (but did not possess either significant agroclimatic or mineral resources), Moscow began to "pull together" the Russian lands around itself, becoming the center of the struggle against external enemies, the center of political and economic power, becoming the largest city in the country. Natural resources are necessary, but not a prerequisite for the development of countries. In recent decades, a number of countries that do not have the necessary reserves of minerals for industrial development (Japan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore) have shown high rates of economic development. Still, all other things being equal, the availability of a raw material base gives additional advantages for the development of industries. Although it is in countries with a rich resource base that resource waste often occurs. Economic valuation of natural resources–establishing the possibility and feasibility of their involvement in production at the current level of development of science and technology– it's important. So, in relation to the characteristics of minerals it is necessary to determine: the size of reserves and their concentration per unit area; qualitative composition, the proportion of useful elements; conditions of occurrence and operation; production (mining) costs per unit of production. It is also necessary to take into account the development and population of the territory in which the field is located, transport conditions, and environmental protection requirements.

1. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan East Kazakhstan State University named after S. Amanzholova

   Monograph

   In the monograph, from the standpoint of a systematic approach, the issues of ensuring the economic and food security of Kazakhstan are considered. A comprehensive assessment of the level of national economic and food security of the republic is given.

2. 1.the subject and tasks of the economy of social and cultural services and tourism 2

   Abstract

   The provision of services is a widespread activity. Almost any person is engaged in it. The simplest services: helping someone in their daily life, providing useful information(information) - do not require special knowledge and training.

3. Economic security of the foreign trade sphere of Russia in the context of economic globalization (theoretical and methodological approach) Specialties: 08.00.05 Economics and management of the national economy (economic security) 08.00.14 World economy

   Abstract

   The defense of the thesis will take place on July 7, 2011 at 13:00 at a meeting of the Dissertation Council D 203.022.01 of the Academy of Economic Security of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia at the address: 129329, St.

4. Program

   The collection contains materials from the first Russian conference dedicated to the implementation of the program "Socio-cultural evolution of Russian regions". The conference was attended by specialists from 19 constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

5. Instructional-methodological letter on the peculiarities of teaching the foundations of sciences in general educational institutions of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the 2006-2007 academic year Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan

   Instructive and methodological letter

   INSTRUCTIVE-METHODOLOGICAL LETTER about the peculiarities of teaching the foundations of sciences in general educational institutions of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the 2006-2007 academic year

Lesson 11. Influence of human economic activity

on nature

Goals: To acquaint students with the main factors of human influence on nature. Give the concept of the ecological situation. Formulate an idea of ​​the sustainable development of Russia. Develop the ability to defend your opinion and listen to your comrades.

Equipment: Physical, political and administrative map of Russia. The film "We have one land".

During the classes

I. Organizing time

II. Homework check

Check homework for §8 (study A., self-assessment questions).

In a group of 4, one student answers a question and three listen to it. The teacher can also walk up to any group and listen to the answers.

Check the progress of the work on the contour map.

Check the completion of the creative task (landscape drawing).

Verification dictation:

In what climate can a dwelling have such a roof?

b)

Answer : a) humid climate; b) arid.

In what climatic conditions can the orientation of the windows be like this?

What kind of dwelling can be built in an earthquake-prone area, and what on permafrost?

Answer : a) on permafrost; b) on moving parts of the earth's crust.

The human consumption rate of fat is 35% in ...Answer : a) tundra; b) in the steppe; c) in the desert.

This arrangement of dwellings can be:

Answer : a) in the mountains; b) on the plain.

A dwelling made of raw (adobe bricks) is called ...Answer : a) adobe hut; b) saklya; c) yurt.

What type of home can be transported when moving?Answer : a) plague; b) saklyu; c) a needle; d) a yurt.

III. Learning new material

Nature and man are interconnected, interact with each other. A person not only adapts to natural conditions, but also uses natural resources in economic activities, influencing nature, changing its quality. We use soil, minerals, seize vast areas of land for cities, roads, quarries, etc.

Conversation lesson plan :

Repetition of what was learned about environmental pollution in grade 8.

Question : What sources of pollution do you know?(Emissions industrial enterprises, soil contamination with pesticides, improper plowing of slopes, fuel combustion, etc.)

Definition of the concept of "ecological situation".

Most often, a person does not think about the consequences of his influence on nature. And then the quality of the environment deteriorates, and as a result, his health suffers. Scientists believe that human health is 20% dependent on the environmental situation.

Writing in a notebook

Ecological situation - it is the state of the natural environment in a given area.

Assessment of the ecological situation from the point of view of the conditions of human life. (Analysis of table. 1, p. 38, section A.)

According to the degree of criticality, they distinguish satisfactory, crisis, conflict, crisis, disastrous and catastrophic environmental situations.

Question : How to assess the potential environmental situation in a particular region of Russia?(The level of economic development can indirectly indicate the ecological situation: the developed central areas Russia have a more unfavorable ecological situation than the poorly developed regions of Siberia and Of the Far East... The higher the population density, the worse the ecological situation. The more "dirty" enterprises have accumulated in a certain area, the higher the level of pollution. Neighboring countries that have an unfavorable environmental situation can also have an impact on the environmental situation.) Which countries can be sources of air pollution in Russia?(Students should remember that in temperate latitudes western transfer air masses and pollution from countries Western Europe extends to the territory of countries of Eastern Europe and Russia.)

Let us consider examples of the impact of the environmental accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (Ukraine) on neighboring countries... The wind carried the radioactive cloud to Belarus and the Baltic republics, the radioactive background also increased in the countries of Scandinavia (Finland). The ecological situation in Chernobyl was characterized as emergency. The consequences of this accident have affected people's health for many years.

Question : How to avoid such environmental situations?

Sustainable development.

To ensure environmental safety, a state strategy for Russia's transition to sustainable development has been developed. Sustainable development is possible if we understand the close relationship between society and the environment.

Question : Do you think our society is ready to develop morally according to the program of sustainable development?

Exercise.

Find in the text of the textbook (study A., p. 39) the ways of sustainable development:/. Resource-saving technologies.

2. Successful social and economic development of Russia (without crises, progressive).

Improving the quality of life of the population.

The international cooperation.

IV. Anchoring

Is it possible to reduce human needs for natural resources? Explain your answer.

What is the ecological situation?

How is the environmental situation in the Chernobyl nuclear power plant area assessed?

What the sustainable development strategy foresees.

In the city of Asbestos (in the Urals), people suffer from asbestosis due to the high concentration of mineral fibers in the air - asbestos or mountain flax - which are mined in quarries near the city.

Homework

By uch. А .: §9, answer questions.

What are the features of the ecological situation in your area?

What are the reasons affecting the ecological situation in your area?

Self-assessment questions (p. 39).

Book: Geography / Butter

Influence of human economic activity on natural conditions and natural resources

Under the influence of human economic activity, changes occur in the natural components of landscapes. During the construction of cities, roads, dams on rivers, the extraction of minerals, the relief is disturbed. Improper soil treatment leads to their water and wind erosion, flat washout. The plowing of steppes, meadows, deforestation, and drainage of bogs affect the species composition of vegetation, and, consequently, the animal world: natural groupings of plants are replaced by cultural ones (fields, gardens, vineyards), the species composition of animals is depleted. Changes in these landscape components affect climate and water.

The influence of the economic development of the territory of Ukraine on its natural conditions and resources was unequal in time and in different natural areas... Already the people of primitive society, who were engaged in hunting and gathering wild fruits and berries, influenced natural landscapes. Later, in the Neolithic period (VIII-IV millennium BC), the population increased, it could no longer be content with hunting wild animals and gathering plants. Agriculture and animal husbandry began to develop. Tripoli culture (IV-II millennium before

n. BC) agricultural influence spreads in the forest-steppe zone, where arable farming developed, as well as in the zone mixed forests where agriculture prevailed. Farming was preserved here yes late XIX Art. It led to the construction of forests on a large part of the Ukrainian Polesie. The development of crafts in the 17th-19th centuries also influenced the decrease in forest cover in Polesie and in the forest-steppe. (smelting of metal from bog ores, production of glass, potash).

Until the end of the 18th century. the meadow steppes of the forest-steppe zone were mainly plowed up and the agricultural development of the steppe landscapes of Ukraine began. It was accompanied by the construction of natural steppe vegetation, which led to a decrease in soil moisture and drying up of the steppes, and therefore, from the second half of the XIX v. in the steppe zone of Ukraine, droughts, dust storms, wind erosion, etc. are observed. Development of lands with steep slopes, improper plowing contributed to the formation of ravines, drying up of small rivers, silting of lakes, groundwater... The agricultural influence on the landscapes of Ukraine is predominant, and it is they that determine the radical transformations of natural landscapes. In their place, in the process of agricultural nature management, agricultural landscape complexes (natural agricultural, land reclamation, pasture) were formed. Agricultural use accounts for 80% of the land fund of Ukraine: forest-steppe, steppe landscapes are plowed up by 75-85%.

On arable land, water and wind erosion develops, which is accompanied by the washing away of the humus horizon, blowing out, backfilling of winter crops, orchards, vineyards, forest belts, canals, roads. Water erosion is currently manifested on an area of ​​12 million hectares. Every year up to 3 thousand hectares of land are destroyed by ravines. In steppe landscapes, through extensive farming technology, the loss of humus over the past 20 years is 1.5-2.5% in the arable layer.

In the zone of mixed forests of Ukraine, arable land occupies about 40% of the land fund, there are few of them in the mountainous regions of the Ukrainian Carpathians - 16.8, in Crimean mountains- 21.4% of the land fund.

The agricultural influence is most manifested through agricultural technology and land reclamation, which are responsible for the decrease (increase) in the level of groundwater. Significant factors of agricultural impact are watering, liming, cultivation and sanding of land, the introduction of a contour or strip farming system, the creation of forest plantations. The influence of drainage reclamation is noticeable in the zone of small forests, in some parts of the Forest-steppe. There drainage reclamation is combined with chemical, phyto-reclamation and cultural and technical measures (overseeding of grasses, replacing shrubs with meadows, etc.). In the forest-steppe and steppe landscapes of Ukraine, irrigation regulates their water

thermal and salt regimes, with accompanying unfavorable processes (rising of readily soluble salts, subsidence, flooding). Almost all eroded lands have been covered by lisomelorative measures, shelter, near-level and near-bank forest belts have been created, pasture slopes, mountainous and elevated slopes have been patched, continuous and solid afforestation of sands, areas along canals, around water bodies has been carried out. However, reclamation measures do not always give the desired effect. Thus, the drying up of lands in the zone of mixed forests is accompanied by a decrease in the level of groundwater in the territories adjacent to amelioration systems, negative changes in the hydrological regime - the shallowing of rivers and lakes.

In the steppe zone, excessive irrigation leads to secondary salinization of fertile lands, their flooding and waterlogging. Improper use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides disrupts the natural cycle of substances and degrades the quality of agricultural products. Due to the imperfect technology of fertilizing and cultivating the soil, plants are able to assimilate only 50% of their amount, the rest are washed off by surface runoff, enters underground and surface waters, increases their mineralization. The toxic chemicals used during the cultivation of crops are mostly toxic to living organisms, harmful to human health. Pesticides are a potential source of pollution of soil, surface and ground waters, air. They can be the cause of pathological changes in the human body.

Significantly affect environment large livestock complexes, their waste due to imperfect storage technology falls along with wastewater into rivers, lakes, soils.

Industrial enterprises, construction and operation of power plants, mining, etc. have a great influence on natural conditions. The result of this impact is primarily chemical pollution, which accounts for more than 80% of the total volume of pollution. The main pollutants are enterprises of the fuel and energy complex, metallurgy, chemical industry, mechanical engineering, military-industrial complex, building materials industry, food industry, utilities, transport.

The concentration of enterprises of the fuel and energy complex in certain regions of Ukraine is very high. This leads to significant air pollution in large cities where they are located, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, their average annual content in many industrial cities is 2 or more times higher than the maximum permissible concentration (MPC). Among the emissions from thermal energy, the main ones are: sulfur dioxide - 63%, nitrogen oxide - 33, particulate matter - 30%.

The influence of metallurgical production on natural conditions and the state of the environment is clear in areas

where mining and processing enterprises are combined with metal production enterprises. A technogenic overload of the environment is observed here. This is, for example, the Donetsk-Dnieper region, which contains about 5 thousand metallurgical, chemical, energy, machine-building, mining and other industrial enterprises. Due to this, more than 70% of carbon and nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide get into the atmosphere. That is why the surrounding middle of the cities of the Donetsk-Dnieper region is the most polluted among the cities of Ukraine. In Donetsk, Gorlovka, Yenakiyevo, Dnepropetrovsk, Alchevsk, Krivoy Rog, Dzerzhinsk, Kramatorsk, Zaporozhye, Lugansk, Mariupol, the level of pollution exceeds the average in Ukraine. V atmospheric precipitation In this region, sulfates, nitrates, nitrogen, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium bicarbonates have been identified. Metallurgical production affects the quality of surface and ground water, domestic and industrial water supply.

Chemical plants emit sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds, etc. into the atmosphere. Enterprises for the extraction and processing of sulfur, potash (Carpathian region) and table salt (Donbass), brine Sivash (Crimea), as well as those that produce nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers (the cities of Donbass, Vinnytsia, Sumy, Odessa) pollute the environment.

The atmosphere, surface and ground waters significantly pollute enterprises machine-building complex in the cities of Donbass and Dnieper (Donetsk, Dnepropetrovsk, Krivoy Rog, Kramatorsk, Mariupol). Particularly dangerous for humans are carcinogenic substances of enterprises of the electrical industry, machine tool and instrument making, Vehicle and etc.

The military-industrial complex has a negative impact on the environment. This applies, first of all, to the basing areas and a large concentration of missile, aviation, tank and other military units (the Black Sea region, Crimea, the Black Sea, etc.). Thus, the content of oil products in the Sevastopol Bay is 180 times higher than their maximum permissible concentration, and the Black Sea Fleet is capable of dumping 9 thousand cubic meters of untreated wastewater into the sea per day. In some areas of military locations, the environment and people especially suffer from the pollution of soil and groundwater with oil products (Belaya Tserkov, Vasilkov, Uzin, Dubno, Velikaya Krucha, Ozernoe, Chuguev). Radiation from powerful radar stations has a negative impact on human health. In the process of training, military maneuvers, the landscapes allocated for training ranges, shooting ranges, training centers, tank training grounds, etc. change significantly.

The relief, soil, vegetation cover, the level of groundwater, the state of the atmospheric air change under the influence of the extraction and production of building materials. Landscapes are disturbed in places of extraction of granites, diabases, labradorites, rubble stone, crushed stone, sand, clay in Zhytomyr, Vinnitsa, Kirovograd, Dnepropetrovsk and other regions. The enterprises of the cement industry, which are especially numerous in Donetsk, Dnepropetrovsk, and Kharkov regions, pollute the environment with dust, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. At the same time, the content of dust in the air exceeds the maximum permissible concentration by 5-10 times. Imperfect technology for the production of bricks, slate, expanded clay and other building materials significantly degrades the environment.

The existing system of urban and rural settlements in Ukraine has a significant impact on landscapes. The area occupied by settlements, industrial and transport buildings, is more than 5% of its territory. The construction of cities is accompanied by a radical transformation of natural landscapes, pollution of the atmosphere by emissions from industrial and municipal enterprises, and changes in the quality of surface and ground waters. In the course of construction work, hillocks are removed and low relief forms are filled in, soil is often washed over for construction sites. During urban development, soil and vegetation cover, surface runoff conditions, and the microclimate of the area change. Urban and road construction can intensify erosion and landslide processes. This causes the need for protective measures: the creation of retaining walls, gentle turf slopes, forest plantations, etc.

Utilities are also one of the factors that affect the state of the environment and human health. There is a problem with the disposal of household waste. Under the influence of natural factors, they decompose, and toxic ingredients pollute surface and ground waters, air, and soil. The most widespread method of processing household waste and still remains incineration, as a result of which the air is polluted with harmful substances. In economically developed countries, integrated waste processing technologies are used, which not only reduces the negative impact on the environment, but also provides economic profit and the ability to preserve valuable natural resources.

One of the most important problems is the treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater. 3.9 billion cubic meters are discharged into water bodies annually. Unfortunately, existing methods provide 95-96% wastewater treatment. However, this is often not enough. And an increase in the degree of purification dramatically increases the cost of treatment facilities. In most industries

the cost of treatment facilities is very high and ranges from 5 to 30% of the cost of equipment and facilities. According to observations, most of the wastewater is discharged without treatment in cities such as Mariupol, Zaporozhye, Kiev. With wastewater, thousands of tons of organic matter, oil products, suspended solids, as well as a lot of phosphorus, ammonium nitrogen, and iron get into the environment.

The state of the environment in Ukraine is greatly influenced by transport. 70% of total air emissions major cities accounted for by vehicles. So, each car, and in Ukraine more than 1 million trucks and 2.5 million cars, consumes annually from 12 to 30 tons of high-octane gasoline mainly Russian production... In this gasoline, the lead content reaches 0.36 g / l (in Great Britain and Germany - 0.15, USA - 0.013 g / l). Diesel fuel of Russian and domestic production has a large percentage of sulfur - 0.5% (in the USA - 0.05%). In addition, when 1 ton of diesel fuel is burned, 16-18 kg of soot is released into the atmospheric air.

Rail transport is more environmentally friendly, especially when electric traction is used. During accidents, a significant negative impact can be railroad when many toxic substances enter the environment at the same time.

Water transport threatens the environment if the technology for the transportation of environmentally hazardous substances is not followed. So, a tanker accident can lead to significant pollution of the water area and coast. Vessels with nuclear power plants pose a great danger. With regard to air transport, the greatest danger is posed by military aircraft and ground handling systems. Fuel residues with toxic impurities enter the soil and groundwater. Oil pipelines and gas pipelines, which stretch across the entire territory of Ukraine, are environmentally hazardous in case of accidents on them.

They affect landscapes and structures of waterworks, canals, amelioration irrigation and drainage systems. They regulate river flows, redistribute water resources, and improve conditions for growing crops. In Ukraine, drained land is 2.9, irrigated - 2.3 million hectares. Large tracts of irrigated land in Dnepropetrovsk, Nikolaev, Odessa, Kherson regions, Crimea, drained - in Kiev, Zhitomir, Rivne, Volyn, Lvov regions (Fig. 119). In the zone of mixed forests, it is necessary to prevent overdrying of peatlands and bogs by regulating the level of groundwater and the water regime in the fields. In the irrigated fields of the Steppe, it is important to prevent secondary land salinization. To do this, it is necessary to carry out drainage work everywhere, to standardize watering depending on the state of the soils and plants that are grown on them.

The creation and operation of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, canals), deep quarries not only changes natural systems, but also affects the state of the natural environment in large regions. So, about 690 thousand hectares of land were flooded by the reservoirs of the Dnieper cascade, and ZO% of their area is shallow water with a depth of up to 2 m.This leads to the loss of agricultural land, affects the ecological conditions of reservoirs (their hydrochemical and thermal regimes change, blue-green algae, which take oxygen from the water, which leads to the death of fish) and adjacent territories (an increase in groundwater causes salinization of lands in the steppe regions).

Man is trying to improve the environment. To do this, she plants eroded lands, mountain slopes, sandy areas with forests, creates plantings along roads and canals, around settlements. The afforestation of the Oleshkovsky sands, which stretch along the Dnieper from Kakhovka to the Black Sea, was effective. Thanks to this, it became possible to place gardens and vineyards there. They also take care of the forest, carry out clear and selective felling of the forest, as well as its planting.

The integrated use of forest resources is based on improving the species composition and age structure of forests, enhancing their environmental and protective functions, and increasing the area of ​​nature conservation objects. Silvicultural, suburban forest landscapes and forest parks are being created.

In areas for recreation and recreation of people, natural CONDITIONS are significantly affected by soil compaction, replacement of natural vegetation with cultural, construction of recreation facilities. This influence is especially noticeable on the Azov-Black Sea coast, in the Ukrainian Carpathians and the Crimean mountains, in the suburban areas of large cities (Kiev, Kharkov, Donetsk, Lvov, etc.).

1.	Geography / Maslyak
2.	Local time, standard time, daylight saving time
3.	Section ІІ. PHYSICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS. NATURAL RESOURCE POTENTIAL Section II. PHYSICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS. NATURAL RESOURCE POTENTIAL Research of the territory of Ukraine
4.	Relief
5.	Paleogeographic conditions
6.	Minerals
7.	Seas, surface and ground waters. Water resources
8.	Soil cover, land resources
9.	Vegetation and fauna
10.	Unfavorable physical and geographical processes and phenomena
11.	Section III. NATURAL COMPLEXES (LANDSCAPES) AND PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL AREA Section III. NATURAL COMPLEXES (LANDSCAPES) AND PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
12.	Physico-geographical zoning
13.	Section IV POPULATION OF UKRAINE Section IV POPULATION OF UKRAINE Number and density of population
14.	Natural growth. Age and gender composition
15.	Settlement system. Urban and rural population
16.	Population migration
17.	National composition
18.	Ukrainian diaspora
19.	Ukrainian culture
20.	Labor resources
21.	Section V. TOPONIMIKA OF UKRAINE Section V. TOPONIMICA OF UKRAINE Toponymy of natural conditions and resources of Ukraine
22.

Management, Consulting and Entrepreneurship

Dependence of the location of industries of the national economy on the natural characteristics of the territory. Classification of natural resources and their distribution throughout the country. Natural conditions are understood as the totality of the most important natural characteristics of the territory reflecting the main features of the components of the natural environment or local natural phenomena. The climatic features of the territory are manifested primarily in the ratio of heat and moisture.

1. The influence of natural conditions and natural resources on territorial organization societies

The influence of natural conditions on the life and economic activities of people. Classification of the territories of Russia by the level of comfort. Dependence of the location of industries of the national economy on the natural characteristics of the territory. Adverse and dangerous natural phenomena: problems of protecting the population and the economy. Classification of natural resources and their distribution throughout the country. Economic and geographical assessment of natural resources: quantitative, technological, cost.

Natural factors have played and continue to play a major role in the life and development of human society.

The concept of "natural factors" usually includes the following categories: natural conditions, natural resources, landscape sustainability and ecological situation, which we will consider further mainly from the standpoint of management science.

Natural conditions are understood as the totality of the most important natural characteristics of the territory, reflecting the main features of the components of the natural environment or local natural phenomena.

Natural conditions directly affect the life and economic activities of the population. Depends on them: settlement of the population, development and distribution of productive forces, their specialization. They determine the cost and, consequently, the competitiveness of manufactured products, which is especially important for countries with a significant distribution of extreme natural features, including Russia.

Among the components of the natural environment, the characteristics of natural conditions are, as a rule, considered climate, geological environment, surface and underground waters, soils, biota, and also landscapes.

An additional, but very important characteristic of natural conditions is the prevalence of local natural phenomena - unfavorable and dangerous natural phenomena, which include natural disasters and natural foci of infections.

The climatic features of the territory are manifested primarily in the ratio of heat and moisture.

The amount of heat required for the complete completion of the growing cycle (growth period) is called the biological sum of temperatures. Thermal resources determine the vigor of plant growth.

Being the largest country in the world in terms of territory (about 17 million sq. Km), Russia is characterized by a significant variety of climatic conditions. At the same time, it should be emphasized that Russia as a whole is the northernmost and coldest country in the world, which affects its economy, economy, many aspects of the life of the population and politics. The consequence of climatic conditions is permafrost, which covers an area equal to almost 10 million square meters. km.

The specifics of permafrost must be taken into account when creating engineering structures: pipelines, bridges, iron and highways, power lines and other infrastructure facilities.

Moisturizing is manifested primarily in the form atmospheric precipitation is the second most important climatic factor. It is necessary for the entire period of plant life. Lack of moisture leads to a sharp decrease in yield. To identify the conditions of humidification of a particular territory, they operate with indicators of the amount of precipitation and the value of possible evaporation. In Russia, territories with excessive moisture prevail, i.e. excess of precipitation over evaporation.

The most important factors the formation of the natural specifics of the region are the relief and geological structure. Influencing all components of the natural environment, relief contributes to the appearance of differences in landscapes and at the same time itself is affected natural zoning and altitudinal zonality. Engineering-geological conditions of the area reflect the composition, structure and dynamics of the upper horizons of the earth's crust in connection with the economic (engineering) human activities. On the basis of engineering and geological studies, the most favorable places for the placement of various types of economic objects are determined, calculations of the stability of rocks during construction work, processing of banks after filling reservoirs, stability of dams, determine the requirements for the construction of structures in permafrost conditions, excessive moisture surfaces in seismic, karst, landslide areas, etc. Taking into account mining and geological conditions is vital in all spheres of economic activity, but especially in urban planning, transport and hydraulic engineering.

For agriculture and a number of other spheres of the economy, soil conditions are of paramount importance. Soil is a special natural body that forms as a result of the transformation of the surface layer of the earth's crust under the influence of water, air and biota and combines the properties of animate and inanimate nature. The value properties of the soil are reflected in its fertility - the ability to provide plants with assimilable nutrients and moisture and create conditions for harvesting.

In the natural sciences, biota is understood as a historically formed aggregate of living organisms inhabiting any large territory, i.e. fauna and flora of this area. The characterization of the natural conditions of the area also includes an assessment of flora and fauna.

In Russia, the main types of vegetation include tundra, forest, meadow and steppe. Forests have a special place among the different types of vegetation. Their ecological and economic value is high, as well as their unique environment-forming role on the planet.

Natural conditions affect almost all aspects of the daily life of the population, the peculiarities of their work, rest and life, people's health and the possibility of their adaptation to new, unusual conditions. The overall assessment of natural conditions is determined by the level of their comfort for humans. To measure it, up to 30 parameters are used (duration of climatic periods, temperature contrast, climate humidity, wind regime, the presence of natural foci of infectious diseases, etc.)

According to the level of comfort, there are:

1. extreme territories (polar regions, alpine regions of high latitudes, etc.);
2. uncomfortable territories - areas with harsh natural conditions, unsuitable for the life of a non-indigenous, unadapted population; subdivided into cold humid (arctic deserts, tundra), arid territories (deserts and semi-deserts), as well as mountainous regions;
3. hypercomfortable territories; areas with limited favorable natural conditions for the migrant population; subdivided into boreal (temperate forests) and semiarid (temperate steppes);
4. precomfortable territories - areas with slight deviations from the natural optimum for the formation of a permanent population;
5. comfortable territories - areas with almost ideal environmental conditions for the life of the population; are typical for the southern part of the temperate zone, in Russia they are represented by areas of insignificant area.

Natural conditions are of paramount importance for those branches of the national economy that operate under the open sky. These are agriculture, forestry and water management. Almost all types of construction are highly dependent on natural conditions. The natural parameters of the territory have a significant impact on the organization of municipal utilities.

In the north and in other regions with extreme natural conditions, there is a need to create special technical means adapted to these conditions, for example with an increased safety margin.

A specific form of natural conditions are adverse and dangerous natural phenomena inherent in certain localities (NOA) or natural disasters.

The most common and at the same time dangerous for humans natural disasters include earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes and storms, tornadoes, typhoons, landslides, landslides, mudflows, avalanches, forest and peat fires. Typical examples of unfavorable natural phenomena are droughts, frosts, severe frosts, thunderstorms, heavy or prolonged rains, hail and some others.

Vital in many cases, protection from NOY inevitably leads to a significant increase in the cost of building and maintaining cities and communications; technologies adapted to increased loads or capable of preventing hazardous impacts.

Natural resources are represented by those elements of the natural environment that can be used in the process of material production at this stage of the development of society. They are used to obtain industrial and food raw materials, power generation, etc.

As the basis of any production, they are subdivided into:

1. subsoil resources (these include all types of mineral raw materials and fuels);
2. biological, land and water resources;
3. resources of the World Ocean;
4. recreational resources.

On the basis of exhaustion, natural resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible.

Exhaustible resources are subdivided into non-renewable and renewable ones. Inexhaustible natural resources include water, climatic and space resources, and the resources of the World Ocean.

Mineral resources remain an indispensable foundation for the development of any society. By the nature of industrial and sectoral use, they are divided into three large groups:

fuel or combustible - liquid fuel (oil), gaseous (suitable gas), solid (coal, oil shale, peat), nuclear fuel (uranium and thorium). These are the main sources of energy for most types of transport, heat and nuclear power plants, blast furnaces. All of them, except for nuclear fuel, are used in the chemical industry;

metal ores - ores of ferrous, non-ferrous, rare, noble metals, rare and rare earth metals. They form the basis for the development of modern mechanical engineering;

non-metallic - mining chemical raw materials (asbestos, graphite,

mica, talc), building materials (clays, sands, limestones),

agrochemical raw materials (sulfur, salts, phosphorites, and apatites), etc.

The economic-geographic assessment of mineral resources is a complex concept and includes three types of assessments.

It includes: quantification individual resources (for example, coal in tons, gas, wood in cubic meters, etc.), its value increases with the increase in exploration of the resource and decreases j as it is exploited; technological, technical, (reveals the suitability of resources for economic purposes, their condition and knowledge, the degree of exploration and availability) and cost (in monetary terms).

The total cost of explored and estimated mineral raw materials is 28.6 (or 30.0) trillion US dollars, of which one third is gas (32.2%), 23.3 is coal, 15.7 is oil, and the forecast potential is in 140.2 trillion US dollars (structure: 79.5% - solid fuel, 6.9 - gas, 6.5 - oil).

Natural resource potential Russia is distributed unevenly across the territory. The main and most promising sources natural resources are located mainly in the East and North of the country and are remote from the developed regions at very significant distances. The eastern regions account for 90% of the reserves of all fuel resources, more than 80% of hydropower, a high proportion of the reserves of non-ferrous and rare metal ores.

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