"Parliamentary Republic of India" - Foreign policy... Baudhayan. Domestic policy. Flag. Interesting Facts about India. Film industry. Official name country. India. Traditional branches of the economy. Indian Railways. Basic information. Knowledge of anesthesia. Religion. Economy. Culture of India. Indian subcontinent.
"Description of the country of India" - Conclusion. Effects economic activity person. Sergey Gorodetsky. Inland waters... India is the cradle of the human race. National holidays of India. Flora. Culture. Constantin Balmont. India is a country with ancient history. State structure and administrative divisions. There are over 460 different museums in India. An exotic sign of India is the huge number of cows on the streets.
"Peculiarities of India" - Religions. Peoples. Economy. Islam. The sacred river is the Ganges. Film industry. Territorial structure farms. Launched artificial satellite... India. Wandering fakir. Problems. Great people. Buddhism. Agriculture employs 60% of the population. Hinduism. The caste nature of society. Red fort. Separatism. Republic of India. Traditional branches of the economy. Sikhism.
"Republic of India" - Ellora. Humpy. Khajuraho. Theatre. Dance classics. Myths selected, accumulated, classified and preserved the richest knowledge. Republic of India. Traditions of India. Mythology of India. Panaji is one of the smallest and most pleasant capitals in India. Bombay. On the embankment of Bombay, a massive Triumphal Arch... Osho Ashram Gate in Pune. Languages of India. Writing. Harmandrid Sahib. Monkeys living in temples dedicated to them are especially revered in India.
"Life in India" - Caves of Ajanta and Ellora. India. Most of all, of course, the mountains in India are impressive. Symbolism. Climate. Economy. India map. History of conquests and gaining independence. Kullu Valley. Mahablipuram. Sikhism. The visiting card of India is the image of the Garden of Eden. Bright "business cards". River worship. Sights. Indian states. The main religion is Hinduism. Natural resources... Khajuraho. Light industry.
"Description of India" - Population. Sights. States and allied territories. Industry. Transport. Economy of India. Consumer cultures. State structure. Republic of India. India. Modern India.
The official name is the Republic of India. Located in the southern part of the Asian subcontinent. The area is 3287 thousand km2, the population is 1027 million people. (2001 census).
The state language is Hindi.
The capital is New Delhi (8.42 million people, 1991).
Public holidays: Independence Day on August 15 (since 1947), Republic Day on January 26 (since 1950).
The monetary unit is the rupee.
Member of the UN (since 1945), Non-Aligned Movement (since 1961), SAARC (since 1985).
Flag and coat of arms
Geography
It extends from the north from 37 ° 6 'to 8 ° 4' north latitude at 3214 km and from the west from 68 ° 7 'to 97 ° 25' east longitude at 2933 km. The land border is 15200 km long, and the sea coast is 6083 km long. The country is located in the central part of South Asia on the northern coast of the Indian Ocean, going into it in the form of a wedge for 1600 km and dividing it into the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east. India also includes the Laccadive Islands in the Arabian Sea, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. India has a common border with Afghanistan and Pakistan in the north-west, with the PRC and Nepal in the north, with Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east, in the south from Sri Lanka it is separated by the Polk and Manar gulfs.
In terms of relief, 4 regions are distinguished in India. 1. The mountain system of the Himalayas in the north and the adjacent Assamo-Burma mountains in the northeast. 2. To the south of the Himalayas - the great Indo-Gangetic plains, to which the Brahmaputra river valley adjoins in the northeast. 3. Peninsular Hindustan, most of which is formed by the Deccan plateau (average heights of 460-1200 m). 4. Coastal lowlands bordering the Deccan plateau in a narrow strip.
The climate is typically monsoon with a pronounced change twice a year of the dominant transfer air masses... Most of the year, moisture is insufficient compared to the evaporation rate. The most wet areas- coastal lowlands (1000-2000 mm of precipitation per year) and the Assam region from the Shillong plateau, where the wettest place in the world is located (Chirrapunji, 12000 mm). Most of the Hindustan Peninsula receives only 500-1000 mm of precipitation per year and constitutes an area of risky farming.
The soils are varied. The main wealth is the alluvial soils of the northern and coastal plains. Black soils, or regurs, tend to retain moisture during the rainy season, which contributes to the development of non-irrigated agriculture in the areas of their distribution. Good for growing cotton. Laterites are almost devoid of humus and require large doses of fertilizers. Red soils are close in chemical composition to laterites.
Rivers originating in the glaciers of the Himalayas concentrate 77% of all water resources in the country. The rivers of peninsular India, flowing into the Bay of Bengal, have 14% of the potential, rivers western direction- 5%. The total length of rivers 42 thousand km, irrigation canals - approx. 30 thousand km. The share of India in the world potential of hydro resources is only 6%. The total river runoff is estimated at 1,869 km3, incl. suitable for development - 690 km3. Groundwater potential - 432 km3. In the 1990s. 83% of the resources used were for irrigation, 4.5% for household consumption, 1.8% for energy. In the beginning. 21 c. the country found itself in a state of chronic water crisis.
The country has a unique biodiversity. Vegetable world has 45,000 species, of which 15,000 are endemic. The fauna numbers 75,000 animal species. Forested areas account for only 19.4%. To preserve biodiversity, the network of protected areas is expanding; they occupy 4% of the country's area. Over the millennia that have passed since the emergence of one of the oldest agricultural civilizations in the world, the nature of the country has undergone the deepest anthropological processing and is now represented exclusively by natural and anthropogenic landscapes. Erosion processes are developing rapidly: they cover almost 60% of arable land and 95% of pasture-pasture lands.
India is experiencing an acute shortage of oil and gas. The main source of energy is coal. The total reserves for 1996 to a depth of 1200 m are 2.2 billion tons (5.7% of the world), of which 44% fall to the category of inferred reserves, 21% - from preliminary estimates, 35% - from reliable ones (72, 73 billion tons). The reserves of coking - only 5.3 billion tons. The reserves of uranium ores are sufficient to ensure the development of nuclear energy by 19 thousand MW. Significant reserves of Kerala monazite sands will be suitable for it in the future.
India is well provided and has export opportunities for iron ore reserves - 12.8 billion tons of hematite ores with an iron content of 60% (1/4 of the world's reserves, 1st place in the world), manganese ores - 233.3 million tons, bauxite - 2525 billion tons (5th place in the world), mica. Poor reserves of non-ferrous metals.
Population
Population censuses are conducted in India every 10 years. In total, 14 censuses have already been carried out, including the last one in 2001. Population (million people): in 1981 - 683.3, in 1991 - 846.4, in 2001 - 1027.0. India is the second most populous country in the world. The birth rate is 27.4 ‰, the mortality rate is 8.9 ‰, and the infant mortality rate is 72 people. per 1000 newborns, average life expectancy 59.4 years (1996). The share of the urban population is 27.2% (2001). The gender structure of the population of India against the background of most countries of the world is distinguished by a significant predominance of men. The trend of an increasing shortage of women can be traced throughout the 20th century: in 1901 there were 972 women per 1000 men (50.7% of the total population were men), in 1951 - 946 (men 51.4%), in 2001 - 933 (51.7%). Age structure: 0-14 years old - 39.7%, 15-59 years old - 54.8%, 60 years and older - 5.5% (1991 census).
In 2001, 55.3% were literate (or 65.4% of the total population over 7 years old); literacy of the male population - 75.85%, female - 54.16% (all over 7 years old). In 1991-2001. the number of illiterates has decreased by 21.5 million, but there are still 106.6 million completely illiterate. India was the first among developing countries to start implementing the State Family Planning policy in 1951, in 1979 it was renamed the Family Welfare Policy. Policy-driven programs consume up to 50% of all public health funds.
India is one of the most multicultural countries in the world. The entire population belongs to three families of peoples: Indo-Aryan - residents of the Hindi-speaking belt in the north of the country, Bengalis, Biharians, Rajathans, Punjabis, Marathi, Kashmiris; Dravidian - Telugu, Malayali, Tamils, Kannara; Tibeto-Burmese - Assamese, Nagas, Manipurians, Tripurians, etc. 8.08% of the population (1991) were tribes.
India is the largest tribal concentration region in the world. They number over 456 ethnic groups and ethnic groups. 1652 languages and dialects were recorded. According to the 1991 census, the most numerous are native speakers of the Hindi language (337.2 million), followed by Bengalis (696.6 million), Telugu (66 million), Marathi (62, 5 million). In total, India has 16 languages, the number of speakers of which exceeds 1 million.
In 1991, 82.4% of the population (672.6 million people) professed Hinduism, 11.67% (95.2 million) - Islam, 2.32% (6.3 million) - Christianity, 1, 99% (16.3 million) - Sikhism, 0.77% (6.3 million) - Buddhism, 0.41% (3.4 million) - Jainism, 0.43% - other religions.
History
The history of India dates back to the Harappan civilization 3 - mid. 2 thousand BC, which existed in the valley of the Indus River. All R. 2 thousand BC the European tribes of the Aryans came to India. In the 6-5 centuries. BC. In northern India, states with monarchical and republican forms of government appeared - Magadha, Koshala, Avanti. With the era of the campaign of Alexander the Great in the Punjab in 327 BC. the names of Chandragupta (317-293 BC) and Ashoka (273-32 BC) are connected - the emperors of the Mauryan dynasty, who united almost all of mainland India. Then the caste-class system was formed in the country. In the 1-2 centuries. AD northern India was part of the Kushan Empire, in the 4th-5th centuries. - to the Gupta empire. The Gupta era was marked by the flourishing of classical culture and art and became known as the "golden age". If the state religion of the Maurya was Buddhism, then the Guptas were adherents of Hinduism. At the same time, in the south, there were the Chola, Pandya and Chera states, competing with each other. With the collapse of the first medieval states, a period of fragmentation and invasions of the feudal lords of Muslims from Central Asia and Afghanistan (Mahmud Ghaznevi, Aybek, Tamerlane, etc.). Almost all of them remained in Hindustan, and some were even able to found empires - the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1707). The latter is considered the most powerful and organized state of pre-colonial India.
The founder of the Mughal Empire was Babur (1525-1530), the former ruler of Fergana. It reached its heyday under the padishah Akbar (1556-1605), who subdued all the northern and central regions. Under his grandson Shah Jahan (1628-1658) and great-grandson Aurangzeb (1658-1707), military expeditions were equipped to the south. In response to the oppression of the Gentiles, uprisings arose in different parts of the empire. The largest was the Maratha movement under the leadership of Shivaji, which led to the creation of an independent Maratha state in the west of the country.
In 1498 Vasco da Gama paved the way to India from Europe. The Battle of Plessis in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal, marked the beginning of British colonial rule. The history of the next 100 years was marked by a long struggle of the peoples of India for liberation from colonial oppression. The most stubborn of these was the Sepoy uprising of 1857-1859. The formation and development of the national liberation movement was associated with the activities of the Indian National Congress (INC). On December 28, 1885, 72 representatives of national public organizations gathered in one of the colleges of Bombay. They called their meeting a congress and declared it the goal of "fostering feelings of national unity" and "the authoritative expression of the views of the educated classes." D. Naoroji (1825-1917), M.G. Runde (1842-1901) and S. Banerjee (1844-1906).
From the beginning. 20th century a new ideological and political direction arose in the Congress. It was headed by B.G. Tilak (1856-1920), L.L. Paradise (1856-1928) and B.Ch. Pal (1858-1932). They advocated the involvement of the masses in the national movement against the colonial authorities, right up to the creation of the republic. For the first time, demonstrations took place in the cities, large rallies gathered. In these conditions, the authorities relied on inciting Hindu-Muslim hatred. In December 1906, with the assistance of the authorities, an all-India political organization, the Muslim League (ML), was established.
A new upsurge of the liberation movement falls on the beginning. 1920s At this time, M.K. Gandhi (1869-1948). He began his political career in South Africa, where he led the non-violent protests of Indians against racial discriminatory laws. In 1919 he joined Congress, which went from being an organization of "educated classes" to a mass political party. In 1920-1922 and 1930-1931. Gandhi and Congress waged civil disobedience campaigns. They stirred up the country and contributed to the growth of liberation sentiments. In December 1929, Congress put forward the slogan "purna swaraj", i.e. complete independence. From the end. 1920s the role of young leaders J. Nehru and S.Ch. Bose (1897-1945).
During the years of World War II, the tactics of the Congress showed a turn towards more active forms of action. In April 1942, Gandhi put forward the slogan "Get out of India!", Which meant the demand for immediate independence. In response, the leaders of the INC were arrested. Repression by the authorities caused massive spontaneous protests. The Indians smashed police stations, destroyed railroad tracks, communication lines, bridges. However, the front of the joint struggle was seriously disrupted. In March 1940, the ML took a course towards the creation of Pakistan - an independent Muslim state within the borders of the regions inhabited by the Muslim majority. After the ML announced the beginning of "direct action" for the creation of Pakistan, a wave of religious and communal pogroms swept across the country. In this situation, in July 1947 the British Parliament hastily passed the Indian Independence Act. He provided for its division on the basis of the religious-communal principle and the creation of the dominions of the Indian Union and Pakistan.
On August 15, J. Nehru raised the flag of independent India near the Delhi fortress. The Red Fort. The constitutional head of the dominion was the governor general (L. Mountbatten, since June 1948 C. Rajagopalachari). He acted on the basis of the recommendations of the government (Prime Minister J. Nehru), which enjoyed the confidence of the Constituent Assembly. It received the right to develop and adopt a Constitution and repeal the laws of the British Parliament. During the period of dominion, the consequences of the partition were overcome, the apparatus of state administration was created, most of the principalities entered the Indian Union.
An acute situation developed in Kashmir, where units of the Pashtun tribes of Pakistan entered in October 1947. In response, the Maharaja announced the annexation of the principality to the Indian Union. After that, counter-control of the Indian army began. By the beginning. In 1949, under the auspices of the UN, a ceasefire line was established in the former principality, which consolidated the positions of the parties and led to the partition of Kashmir. As a result, the "Kashmir issue" remains an unhealed wound in Indian-Pakistani relations.
On November 26, 1950, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Basic Law of the country. The Constitution entered into force on January 26, 1950. This date is celebrated in India as Republic Day. In 1954, India annexed French colony Pondicherry, and in 1961 - the Portuguese colonies of Daman and Diu. In 1956, a law on the administrative-territorial division of the country was adopted and 14 states were created on an ethno-linguistic basis. In 2000, new states appeared on the map of the country - Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chhattisgarh.
In 1965 and 1971. India was at war with Pakistan. The defeat of Pakistan in 1971 contributed to the formation of Bangladesh. In 1999, a conflict took place between India and Pakistan in the Kargil Dras sector. In 1959 and 1962. Indian-Chinese border conflicts... India believes that the PRC "occupies" 33 thousand km2 of its territory.
13 elections have been held for the lower house of the Indian parliament. In 1950-1989. INC won the elections. Nehru, I. Gandhi and R. Gandhi, the leaders of this party, formed unicameral governments. In 1977-1979 the monopoly of the INC was violated by the Janata party of M. Desai. Since 1989, the country has been ruled by coalitions: the National Front (1989-1991), the United Front (1996-1998), the National Democratic Alliance (from 1999 to the present).
State structure and political system
India is a sovereign, democratic, federal state with a republican form of government. The words "socialist and secular" were added in August 1976 after the 42nd amendment to the Constitution was passed by parliament. India includes 28 states - Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizaboramssa, Nagalenjandj Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, as well as the National Capital Territory of Delhi and 6 union territories - Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diwiu, Chandishig ...
India is a federal state, established as the Union of States. There is a British-style parliamentary form of government. The federal (central) government and the governments of the subjects of the federation function. Legal supremacy belongs to the Constitution. The Supreme Court has the power to invalidate any act that is inconsistent with the basic law. The Supreme Courts of the states are vested with similar rights within the limits of their competence. Unlike other federations, India was created by transforming unitary state(British India) to federal. Joining the federation of provinces British India was mandatory, and the principalities - voluntary. Another feature of the Indian Federation is that states do not have the right to secede from the Union.
The highest legislative body is parliament. Its upper house - the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) - includes 250 deputies, the lower - the People's Chamber (Lok Sabha) - 545 deputies. The 238 members of the upper house are representatives of the states and union territories, and 12 members are appointed by the President from among persons with special knowledge or practical experience in the field of literature, science, art and social activities... The lower house consists of no more than 525 representatives of the states, no more than 20 representatives of the union territories and 2 Anglo-Indians appointed by the president; the number of state representatives in the House ranges from 1 (Nagaland) to 34 (Uttar Pradesh). A member of the House of the People can be a citizen of India who has reached the age of 25, and a member of the Council of States - 30 years of age. The president may dissolve the lower house and announce the date of early elections. The upper house cannot be dissolved early. The bill is submitted for consideration to any of the houses of parliament by the minister or an ordinary member of the house. It can be submitted for consideration, sent to a special commission, or made public in order to identify public opinion. When a proposal for a bill to be considered has been passed by the House but no amendments have been proposed or the amendment process has already been completed, the sponsor of the bill has the right to apply for its adoption. Following the adoption by one chamber, the bill is passed to another. Once adopted by both chambers of parliament, it is passed on to the president. The refusal of the president to approve means the failure of the bill. If the president approved the bill, then it becomes law.
The head of the executive branch of the Union is the President. He appoints the Prime Minister and, at the suggestion of the latter, members of the Cabinet of Ministers, as well as state governors, members of the Supreme Court and Supreme Courts of States. The President is endowed with the right to initiate legislation, the right to veto and issue emergency decrees with the force of laws between sessions of parliament. The President has the power to declare a state of emergency in the event of a threat of war or internal unrest and to impose presidential rule in the state "due to the failure of the constitutional mechanism." The president is elected for a 5-year term by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both houses of parliament and elected members of state legislatures. In July 2002, Abdul Kalam (born in 1931) became President of India.
In fact, the key figure in the system of executive power is the prime minister, who heads the government - the Council of Ministers. He coordinates government policy, liaises between the cabinet and the president, and provides assistance and advice to the president in the performance of his functions. The Prime Minister is the leader of the party or coalition that won the elections to the People's Chamber. In September October 1999, such a victory was won by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Its leader A.B. Vajpayee became prime minister. Elections to the House of the People's House of Parliament and state legislatures are held every 5 years on the basis of universal suffrage by persons over 18 years of age. The elections are direct. For their implementation, the territory of the country is divided into territorial constituencies. The election is monitored by an election commission headed by the chief commissioner. The Council of States and the State Legislative Council are updated by 1/3 every 2 years. State representatives are elected by the elected members of the state legislatures under a proportional representation system on a single transferable vote. The representatives of the Union Territories are elected through a two-stage election by the members of the Electoral College for that Territory under a proportional representation system based on a single transferable vote.
Legislative power in the states is exercised by the legislature. In some states, the legislature consists of two chambers - the legislative assembly and the legislative council, in others - from one chamber, i.e. legislative assembly. The total number of members of the Legislative Assembly must not exceed 500 or be at least 60. The number of members of the Legislative Council varies depending on the total number of members of the Legislative Assembly, but cannot be less than 40.
The Governor of the State is appointed by the President. The usual term of office of the Governor is 5 years. He acts in accordance with the instructions given to him by the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister heads the state government - the Council of Ministers and is the person in whose hands the real executive power is concentrated. The office of the chief minister of a state resembles that of the prime minister of a country.
The Union Territory is governed by an administrator appointed by the President. The law on the management of union territories provides for the creation of a legislative assembly and a Council of Ministers in each of them to give advice to the administrator.
The main administrative division of the states and union territories is the district. It is divided into urban and rural areas. The urban area is governed by the municipality, the rural area - by panchayat. The district is headed by a collector. Characteristic feature Indian Federation is a clear delineation of powers of the Union and the states. The Union's competence includes a list of 97 items: defense, relations with foreign states, money circulation, foreign trade, nuclear energy, etc. The list of issues referred to the competence of the states consists of 66 items: public order, local government, health, agriculture, forestry, markets and fairs, etc. The list of issues of joint competence consists of 47 points: criminal law, marriage, family and guardianship legislation, economic and social planning, labor legislation, etc.
Prominent statesmen and politicians: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) (1869-1948). "Father of the nation", the leader of the struggle for national independence, the founder of the ideology and tactics of Gandhism, a master of political compromise. He used methods of nonviolent resistance, incl. peaceful demonstrations, stopping work, closing shops, boycotting foreign goods, etc. He called the tactics of nonviolent influence "satyagraha" (literally, "persistence in the truth"). He was arrested several times. Held 17 hunger strikes in protest. Killed on January 30, 1948 by a fanatic Hindu in retaliation for calling for the unity of Hindus and Muslims.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964). "Creator of a new India", prime minister in 1947-1964, author of a course on the development of the public sector of the economy, industrialization, agrarian reforms, reduction of social imbalances, secularization of social and political life. In 1956 he carried out an administrative-territorial reform. One of the initiators of the Bandung Conference (1955) and the Non-Aligned Movement (1961). A talented publicist.
Indira Gandhi (1917-1984). Prime Minister 1967-1977 and 1980-1984 In 1971 she won the war with Pakistan. 1975-1976 introduced a state of emergency, which she used against the right-wing opposition. Resolute opponent of separatism and terrorism. In June 1984, she gave the order to storm the Golden Temple in Amritsar (a Sikh shrine), where the separatists were. Killed on October 31, 1984 by Sikh bodyguards.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee (born in 1924). Prime Minister since 1998. This is the third time in office. Founder of the National Democratic Alliance (1999). Supporter of liberal economic reform. In 1999 he signed the Lahore Declaration with Pakistan, in 2001 in Agra he met with the leadership of Pakistan. Famous poet.
Party system. Indian MPs represent 6 national and 33 regional parties. Leading national parties: Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian People's Party), formed in 1980, leader of the coalition of the ruling party since 1998; Indian National Congress, created in 1885, formed one-party governments in 1947-1977, 1980-1989, 1991-1996, the largest opposition party; The Communist Party of India (Marxist), which broke away from the KPI in 1964, operates in line with the democratic measures of the government; Communist Party of India; socialist (samajvadi); Bahujan Samaj Party (Party of the majority of the people).
Major regional parties: Telugudesam Party (Telugu country), Andhra Pradesh, BJP ally; Shiv Sena (Shivaji Army), Maharashtra, ally of the BJP; Dravida munnetra kazhagan (Dravidian Progressive Federation), Tamil Nadu, ally of the BJP; Trinamool Congress, West Bengal, BJP ally; Rashtriya Janata Dal (National People's Party), Bihar, INC ally; Anna dravida munnetra kazhagan, Tamil Nadu, INC ally; Muslim League of the Indian Union, Kerala, INC ally; National Confederation of Jammu and Kashmir. In the 1990s, there was a transition from a party-based to a coalition form of government in the center and in the localities, where the struggle is waged by large alliances led by the BDP and the INC.
Leading business organizations: Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce; Trade Development Organization with India; State Trade Corporation; Confederation of Indian Industry, etc.
There are thousands of civil society organizations and associations in India. Leading trade union centers - Bharatiya mazdur sangh (Union of Indian Workers), established in 1954, is under the influence of the BJP; Indian National Congress of Trade Unions (1947, INC), Indian Center of Trade Unions (1970, KPI (Marx.)); peasant organizations - the All India Peasant Union (Kisan Sabha) and Bharatiya Kisan Sabha; youth organizations - the National Cadet Corps and Bajrang Dal (the Force of the Force); women's organizations - All India Women's Democratic Association, All India Women's Conference, etc.
Priority areas domestic policy NDA governments are deepening economic reforms, strengthening national security and developing Indian democracy and federalism. 1998 marked the beginning of the "second generation" of reforms. Commitment to the protection of the national industry and the intention to transform India into an information superpower were reaffirmed. The BJP declares loyalty to the principles of nationalism and Hindutva (Hinduism) and declares equal respect for all religions. The party is pursuing a course towards a gradual restructuring of relations between the center and the states and increasing the financial independence of the states and union territories. An amendment to the Constitution is envisaged to provide a 33% quota for women in the House of People and State Legislatures and to create a committee to fight corruption in the highest echelons of government.
In the international arena, India acts from the standpoint of building a multipolar world order, general nuclear disarmament, strengthening the role of the UN and the Security Council in international affairs, curbing world terrorism and establishing good-neighborly relations with all countries of South Asia. Delhi believes that Pakistan is illegally occupying part of Indian territory in Kashmir, and this problem can be resolved on a bilateral basis on the basis of the Simla agreements of 1972. The NDA government attaches particular importance to deepening and developing relations with the United States, as well as strengthening traditional ties with the Russian Federation. It stands for the alignment of relations with the PRC and approves the idea of the RF-India-PRC alliance.
The Armed Forces consist of three types of troops: the Ground Forces (36 divisions of 1.1 million people), the Air Force (130 thousand) and the Naval Forces (53 thousand), as well as auxiliary services (military engineering , medical, general management of the headquarters, etc.). It is armed with 75 operational-tactical surface-to-surface missiles, 3614 tanks (including 1900 T-72M1), 835 combat aircraft (mainly MiG-27, MiG-29, Mirage-2000N, Jaguar ", Su-30), 1 aircraft carrier, 8 destroyers, 17 submarines. The commander-in-chief is the president of the country. Defense policy is formed by the Council of Ministers.
The Republic of India has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR on April 13, 1947). In January 1993, India and the Russian Federation signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation. In October 2000, a Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between the Republic of India and the Russian Federation.
Economy
Until 1992 (the beginning of the economic reform), the GDP growth rate did not exceed 3.5% per year. Since 1993/94 fiscal year 2001/02 the rate increased sharply: in constant prices of 1993/94. - up to 6.2% and at current prices - up to 13.1%. Share of gross savings in GDP in 2001/02 - 25.6%. Gross income per capita in constant prices increased from 7698 rupees (1993/94) to 10,754 (2001/02), in current prices from 7698 to 17978. According to the 1991 census, India had 314.1 million. employed, of which 285.9 million had a permanent job, and 28.2 million were in marginal employment. At labor exchanges - there are 958 of them in the country (2000) - 41.3 million people were registered. The consumer price index rose from 112.6 in 1994/95. (base 1993/94 = 100) to 145.3 in 1999/2000. Contribution of sectors of the economy to GDP production (%, 2001/02): agriculture and related industries 24.3; mining 2.2; processing 21.8; energy 3.0; construction 5.2; transport and trade 22.5; services 21.5. The share of fuel raw materials in the products of the mining industry is 88%, incl. coal 38.3%, oil 35.7%, natural gas 11.2%, lignites 2.8% (1995/96). Produced per year (1999/2000, million tons): coal 299.97, oil 31.9. Extraction of ore minerals (million tons): iron ore 64.5 (44% of mined ore is exported, accounting for 5% of the value of world exports iron ore); bauxite 4.9; copper ore 4.7; manganese ore 1.7. In terms of coal production, India is in 4th place in the world.
The share of commercial energy sources in final consumption (1996/97,%): coal 29.3, oil products 46.8, natural gas 6.9, electricity 17.0. In 1971, almost 100% of the mines were nationalized. The country remains highly dependent on traditional (non-commercial) types of energy. Their share in the consumed energy resources in 1996/97 was 32.3%, of which 65% was wood fuel, or 161.4 million tons per year, 88.6 million tons - dry manure and 49.7 million tons - agricultural waste. The share of various types of power plants in total capacities (1999/2000,%): general use 86.6 (thermal approx. 63.1, hydroelectric power plants 21.1, nuclear 2.4), plant 13.4.
In 1999/2000. end products ferrous metallurgy included 27.17 million tons of rolled products and 3.15 million tons of pig iron. The country has 7 metallurgical plants, 6 of which are in the public sector, are factories in Bhilai, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Salem, Vizaghapatnam. Steel is smelted in the country and in small enterprises - their approx. 180 with a total installed capacity of 8 million tons of steel per year, using electric arc and induction furnaces, and as raw materials - scrap metal and sponge iron.
Aluminum production 1999/2000 497.9 thousand tons; 50 thousand tons of aluminum and 300 thousand tons of alumina are exported. 60% of aluminum smelting capacity is in the public sector. Copper industry: by 2002, the capacity of copper smelters reached 500 thousand tons per year. Until mid. 1990s the state was the monopoly in copper smelting, now the industry is open to private capital, which launched the construction of several factories at once.
Lead-zinc: in the middle. 1990s the annual production of zinc fluctuated between 84.6 and 120 thousand tons, lead - between 27.85 and 35.5 thousand tons. Gold mining and production are nationalized, the annual production is 1540 kg.
The production of organic chemistry products is mainly based on petroleum. Phenol, methanol, formaldehyde, acetone, acetic acid are produced. India is distinguished by the production of a wide range of alcohol-based organic chemistry products. India is completely self-sufficient in such inorganic chemistry products as soda ash, carbon black, calcium carbide, potassium chloride.
Over the years of independence, India has increased the production of mineral fertilizers by 565 times, and took the 4th place in the world in terms of nitrogen fertilizers. But the production of fertilizers does not fully meet the needs - the import of potash fertilizers covers 100% of domestic needs, phosphorus fertilizers - by 30%. Since 1977, a system of state subsidies has been in place in the production of fertilizers. In 1999, its volume amounted to 132.4 billion rupees. The pesticide production capacity is 96.2 thousand tons per year. Since 1960, petrochemistry has been rapidly developing - the production of chemical fibers, thermoplastics (including plastics used for the production of parts and components in mechanical engineering), dyes, paints and varnishes.
The pharmaceutical industry is one of the largest in developing countries. India produces a wide range of bulk drugs, including antibiotics, antibacterial drugs, steroids, hormones, vaccines, herbal medicines. India consumes 500 drugs in this category, of which 350 are produced domestically, demand for prescription drugs is fully satisfied.
The rapid development of mechanical engineering was facilitated by the policy of import protectionism. Transport engineering (one of the oldest industries) is represented by the production of railway rolling stock (24-25 thousand freight cars per year, 1900-2500 passenger cars, 155 electric locomotives, 135 diesel locomotives); shipbuilding and ship repair industries (there are 40 shipyards in the country), where the public sector absolutely dominates; automobile (production of jeeps in 1996/97 72.4 thousand units; other passenger cars 241.2; trucks 85.9; passenger buses 20.1; motorcycles 478.5; scooters 983.4; mopeds 428.6 ; bicycles 137 333 thousand units). From ser. 1990s production of all types of automotive products is exempt from licensing. India produced in 1999/2000. 280 thousand pcs. tractors, earthmoving, road-building equipment, lifting and transporting machines. The production of industrial equipment developed only in the years of independence. Now India provides itself with equipment for the cotton, jute, sugar, paper, cement, metallurgical, chemical, pharmaceutical, energy and electrical industries.
One of the fastest growing industries was the electronics industry, which emerged only in the middle. 1980s, consumer and industrial electronics are produced. The cement industry is developing thanks to its rich raw materials. Production 100.2 Mt (1999/2000). The industry not only fully satisfies domestic needs, but also exports a significant amount of products (3.38 million tons in 1994/95). The traditional industry is textiles. Provides up to 20 million jobs, 20% of the cost industrial products and 33% of export earnings. Largest industry textile industry- cotton. Raw materials favors its development - in terms of cotton sown area, India ranks 1st in the world, but the yield is only 1/3 of the world average. In terms of the value of gross output and the number of employees in 1st place among the branches of the factory industry. During the years of independence, the development of the cotton factory industry proceeded due to the growth in the number of spinning mills and their capacities, while the number of looms and combined (spinning and weaving mills) did not grow. Weaving production was reserved by the state for the sector of small and handicraft industries. The ratio of cotton to man-made fiber in the textile industry in 2000 was 56:44 (world average 46:54). The bulk of cotton factories are in the private sector (in 1996): the public sector is 13%, the cooperative sector is 10%, and the private sector is 77%. The annual production of all types of fabrics is 40.34 million m2, which is 30.6 m2 per year per capita. Per capita growth doubled from 1960/61 to 1999/2000 occurred due to fabrics made of artificial fibers. The export of fabrics has grown 61 times over the same period. The export of jute from the 1st place in the colonial time moved to the 20th - 0.3% of the total value of the country's exports. The government is stimulating the revival of the industry. India ranks 2nd in the world for silk production. All types of silk are produced. The government encourages the export of leather goods. The industry currently ranks 4th among sources of export earnings.
V Food Industry the largest traditional industry is sugar. Production in 2000 -18.2 million tons. In state policy, preference is given to the development of the cooperative sector, which accounts for 60% of sugar production. In 1996, there were 440 sugar factories in the country. In terms of production scale, India is one of the world's largest agricultural producers. Development agricultural sector lags significantly behind the development of industry, although the country has reached a state of "food security", i.e. satisfaction of domestic needs for food products at the expense of national production. Due to the fact that the country is traditionally committed to a vegetarian diet, in sectoral structure agriculture is dominated by crop production. For centuries in India, rice was the main grain crop, but during the "green revolution" end. 1960s - early. 1970s wheat also joined it, displacing traditional millet. Rice makes up 43.6% of all harvested in 2000/01. grain (86.8 million tons). It is grown everywhere, but the main rice-growing regions are the south and east of the country (70% of the total harvest). 2/3 of the crops are not irrigated. Mainly grown on small and marginalized farms, which prevents large government purchases to create reserves or “buffer stocks”. The Green Revolution (GRE) affected rice to a lesser extent than wheat: for high-yielding rice varieties in 1997/98. 32% of the sown area under this crop was occupied.
Wheat - 35.2% of the total grain harvest in 2000/01 (70.0 million tons). The second grain crop of the country and the first crop of the ZR. Mainly grown in the north, the main focus of highly productive production is in the states of Punjab, Hariana and western Uttar Pradesh. Production increased from 6.5 million in 1950/51. up to 70-75 million tons per con. 1990s. In terms of yield growth, it takes 1st place among all legumes. It is cultivated on the farms of medium and large farmers as an irrigated crop (86.2% of all crops in 1996/97). The main crop from which the state grain resources are formed, with the help of which grain prices on the domestic market are regulated and assistance is provided to the poorest segments of the population. Millet (millet-bajra, barley-jovar) - 15% of the grain harvest in 2000/01 (29.9 million tons) - the main crops of the regions of non-irrigated agriculture in the interior regions of the country (only 5.3% of the area is irrigated). Millets are the staple food of the poor. Corn is not only a grain but also a fodder crop. Irrigated approx. 20% of crops. The average yield is 1.7 tons per hectare with 4.1 tons on average in the world. Fees approx. 10 million tons per year. Legumes are an essential component of the Indian diet, as they are the only source of protein in a vegetarian diet. The main cultivation areas are northern and central India. All years of independence are produced with a large deficit in relation to needs. Fees approx. 12-13 million tons per year, which is only 15-20 g per person per day. Taking 1st place in the world in terms of gross harvests, India takes one of the last places in terms of their yield - 550-630 kg per hectare.
Oilseeds include 9 crops: peanuts, canola, mustard, sesame, flaxseed, safflower, soy, sunflower, oil palm. The main oilseed crop is peanuts. Traditionally grown in the south, it has now appeared in the north and central India. Peanut butter used to be exported, but the rapid population growth has led to the cessation of the export of oil. General collection of oilseeds in 2000/01 - 18.6 million tons. The country is experiencing an acute shortage of vegetable oils, therefore there is a special state program to reduce the deficit in the production of oilseeds.
The main commercial crop of the country is sugar cane; its cultivation is developing very dynamically. One of the most irrigated crops - 88.1% of all crops. The main growing area is the state of Maharashtra. Collection in 2000/01 - 300 million tons. Cotton harvest in 2000/01. - 77.6 million tons (in fiber mass). Grown in the "great cotton belt" - central and western India. Only 1/3 of the crops are irrigated. The main growing area for jute is West Bengal. India - large manufacturer jute fiber - 55 million tons in 2000/01 Thanks to its climate, India is home to many plantation crops. They are also the main export crops of agriculture. India has two main growing areas - the Coromandel and Malabar coasts in the south and the foothills of the northeast.
India produced 29% of the world's tea harvest in 2000. Annual harvest in the 1990s. - 780-870 million kg of tea leaves. About 1/5 is exported. Indian Arabica is close to the best international standards. It is grown mainly in the south. 80% are exported. India ranks 4th in the world for the production of rubber. The main plantations are in the south in Kerala. Formerly an important export item. Now, in order to meet the needs of the rubber industry, a small amount of rubber is imported.
Spices have been cultivated since ancient times. An important export item, the amount of proceeds from their export is 1/3 higher than the proceeds from the export of tea. Main types: black pepper (one of the best in the world), ginger, cardamom, garlic, chili, turmeric. In terms of vegetable production, India is second only to China. In 1997/98. collection amounted to 87.5 million tons. India's share in world production - 14.4% (2000). In the cultivation of vegetable peas and cauliflower, India is in 1st place in the world. In horticulture, India's share in world production is 10%, annual harvests are 44-46 million tons.The main species: bananas (42% of world production, 1st place in the world), mango (26%, 1st place), grapes (in one of the first places, goes to the production of raisins), apples, pineapples, papaya, guava. In animal husbandry, cattle (providing 1/3 of the value of all agricultural production) is used mainly as a draft force (57% of the world population of buffaloes) and as a dairy herd (16% of cows in the world). In terms of milk yield, India came out on top in the world - 78.1 million tons (1999/2000). Poultry and sheep breeding are developing rapidly. Export proceeds from livestock products in the 1990s grew by an average of 10% per year. Skins, leather products, poultry and lamb are exported.
Length railways- 63 thousand km The rolling stock is 7 thousand locomotives, 30 thousand passenger cars and 300 thousand freight cars. The sphere of employment is 1.6 million people. 11 million passengers and more than 1 million tons of cargo are transported annually. The share of railway transport in the country's freight turnover is 40% and in the passenger turnover - 20% (1995). The work is complicated by the multi-gauge tracks: approx. 40 thousand km - wide track, 19 thousand - meter and 4 thousand - narrow. The main burden of freight and passenger traffic falls on broad-gauge railways that form the sides of the "golden quadrangle" - Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata. By rail the states of the northeast and Jammu and Kashmir are still not secured. The length of highways is 3.3 million km (1996). National highways (34.3 thousand km long) and main highways of the states (34.1 thousand km) make up 5.5% of the total road length, but serve 3/4 of the total volume of road traffic. The car park totaled 27.5 million units, transported 23 billion passengers and 398 billion ton-kilometers per year (1995). There is a sharp movement of goods and passengers from railways to highways, which is considered undesirable in India due to the growth of oil imports.
Local roads linking rural settlements, began to be actively created in the 1980s. within the framework of the state program for increasing employment. Non-mechanized transport continues to play a huge role. The main passenger traffic in small and medium-sized cities is served by approximately 5 million cycle rickshaws (17 billion passengers per year, 420 million tons of cargo). The number of draft cattle is 85 million heads, freight carts are 15 million. They transport 2 billion tons of cargo per year. The role of the internal water transport small - 1% of the total cargo turnover.
India is a major maritime power: length coastline 5560 km There are 11 main seaports, St. 90% of international trade shipments by weight and 77% by value. There are 139 small and intermediate ports serving coastal trade. The cargo turnover of the main ports is 423.9 million tons (2001/02). Oil and petroleum products account for over 40%, iron ore 15%. The largest ports are: Mumbai, Kolkata + Khaldia, Vizag, Kandla.
Until 1994, the state had an exclusive monopoly on air transportation: the state-owned Air India company on international routes, Indian Airlines - on domestic routes along 72 routes. Now there are 5 more private airlines. The state-owned helicopter company Pavan Hens Helicopters serves Indian oil companies and flies to the northeastern states. The 5 largest airports - Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Bangalore - pass 74% of all passenger traffic. There are 120 airports in India.
India has developed locally adapted remote communication technologies that meet global standards - digital switching systems (CS) for use in urban and rural areas. COPs for cities with a range of 1.5-40 thousand telephone lines allow servicing up to 800 thousand phone calls per hour. OK. 40% of all telephone lines in the country operate on these systems. Small automatic telephone stations designed for 200 telephone lines have revolutionized the telephony system in rural areas. These ATCs have become an important export item to Asian countries, Latin America... Since the 1980s. The telecommunication sector is booming. In 2000, India had the most developed television network in Asia - 28.4 million stations served 35 million telephone lines and 28.9 million telephones. The long-distance transmission structure consists of 135 thousand km of radio networks and 75 thousand km of fiber-optic networks. Telegraph communication is still not losing ground in rural areas (45.5 thousand telegraph offices). Now such types of switching services as facsimile, paging, radio-mobile and cellular, e-mail, teletext, video conferencing are developing in the country. The total number of cell phones is 2.6 million (2000). Mobile communications are still expensive and out of reach for most of the population.
The course of the state economic policy changed in stages. The first stage: from the moment of gaining independence in 1947, a model of import-substituting structural modernization of the economy based on state capitalism was adopted - the state sector and state regulation of the economy. The main directions of state influence on the private sector and its socio-economic structure: 1) provision of the private sector with means of production and financial resources; 2) facilitating the transfer of private capital from the circulation environment to production; 3) the subordination of foreign capital to the needs of the development of the national economy; 4) ensuring the overflow of foreign and large national capital into capital-intensive and technologically complex industries; 5) promoting the growth and modernization of small-scale industry (reserving certain industries for it); 6) assistance to the development of capitalism in agriculture (pushing large landowners to the path of running their own economy, attracting large landowners to conduct intensive farming).
Planning plays a key role in the system of state regulation of the economy. Since 1951/52 the development strategy is determined by five-year plans, which are comprehensive programs of structural changes in the economy, sets the structure of public investment and planned allocations. The second stage: beginning in June 1991 due to the balance of payments crisis and the need to receive IMF assistance and economic reform, which determined the transition to an export-substituting development model, in which the role assigned to the public sector changes significantly (the burden of its social functions is reduced), the economy opens for the import of foreign manufactured goods, for the private sector, spheres previously reserved for the public sector are freed, the sphere of state regulation of prices and interest rates is reduced. At the same time, planning and five-year plans are retained, but their indicative character in relation to targets for the private sector is strengthened. The main direction of social policy is the state redistribution of resources, the development and implementation of programs to combat the main social evil - poverty.
Since the 1990s. social policy focuses on two areas - the creation of new jobs and the creation of conditions for the development of small and small businesses (self-employment in Indian terminology). From the 2nd floor. 1990s the main target was “self-employment” - 75% of all funds allocated for programs to help the poor. Target groups of beneficiaries include: the urban poor, women, children, rural youth aged 18-35, rural artisans. A significant role in sustaining the lives of the poorest is played by state system food distribution (PSA) at subsidized prices that has existed in India for over 60 years. The PSA includes two links: the state purchase of grain at fixed prices and its sale to targeted groups of the population through “fair price” stores, of which there are more than 460 thousand in the country. Up to 25 million tons of grain are sold annually through these stores.
The monetary system was formed as a result of the nationalization in 1949 of the central bank - the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), created in 1935. In addition to its usual functions (regulating money circulation, maintaining the official exchange rate, etc.), the RBI participates in the regulation sectoral and territorial focus of credit and investment flows and determination of the norms of mandatory investments in low-yield government securities. The system includes commercial banks (CB), state organizations for long-term financing of industry and a state-cooperative system of agricultural lending. After the nationalization of the largest private banks (in 1969, 14 banks and in 1980, 6 more), 28 state-owned commercial banks accounted for St. 80% of branches, deposits and loans of all commercial banks in the country. As their subsidiaries, 196 regional rural banks function, designed to serve the credit needs of the rural poor in 2-3 districts.
The public sector occupies a monopoly position in the system of long-term financing of industry. There are 3 types of state organizations for long-term financing: 1) state financial corporations and development banks for the provision of long-term loans and investments; 2) a state unit trust created to accumulate funds of small and medium-sized investors for subsequent investment in a diversified portfolio of securities traded on the market; 3) state insurance companies. Almost 1/2 of the total credit for agriculture is channeled through the state cooperative system. The bottom link of the system is 92 thousand primary agricultural credit societies with 98 million members. Primary societies are members of 364 central cooperative banks operating at the county level. 28 state co-operative banks lead this three-tiered structure through which short- and medium-term credit for agriculture is channeled. Along with it, there is a two-stage state cooperative system of long-term lending to agriculture, consisting of 19 state banks and their grassroots network of 738 banks (7 million members).
Government debt in the 1990s - early. 2000s (share of GDP,%): domestic 46.7-51.5; external 2.6-4.2. Taxes provide about 3/4 of the state budget revenues. Structure of tax revenues to the consolidated budget of the central government, state governments and union territories (1996/97,%): direct taxes 30.4 (including taxes on corporations 14.4; other income 14.2; other direct 1, eight); indirect taxes 69.6 (including central excise taxes 35.0; customs duties 33.3; other indirect 1.3). The low living standards of the population and the practical exemption of agricultural income from income tax greatly narrow the tax base. Income taxes, including corporate tax, apply to only 0.5% of all residents of the country. Other direct taxes - on wealth, on inheritance, on realized gains in the market value of capital, on gifts, etc. - have a very high non-taxable threshold and apply to an even smaller part of the population. In general, direct taxes cover only 1% of the economically active population. The tax policy of the state is aimed at boosting productive capital investments, at encouraging investments in priority sectors of production, is used as a tool of import protectionism and serves to stimulate exports.
The historically large population of India still remains one of the main factors in the low standard of living of the bulk of the population. At present, the persistence of the problem of poverty as one of the main problems of national development is facilitated by the still too high population growth and labor resources and degradation of the natural base of agricultural production. During the first 25-30 years of independence, the sphere of poverty was constantly growing absolutely and relatively, but then it began to slowly decline, and the main role was played by the state support of the poorest strata. Poverty rate (proportion of persons with income below the level providing an energy value of food of at least 2,400 kcal per person per person in the village and 2,100 in the city): 27.32% (1999/2000). The bulk of the poor are concentrated in the rural sector. The income of rural residents is less than 1/3 of the income of urban residents. The main social category of the rural poor is landless agricultural workers, whose daily wages are well below the official minimum. wages in this sector. One of the worst manifestations of poverty has become the chronic malnutrition of a significant part of the rural population. According to estimates, India in the 1990s. lost up to $ 10 billion annually, or 3-5% of GDP, due to poor health, disease and low labor productivity caused by malnutrition. In 2001/02. exports amounted to 9.1%, imports 10.5% of GDP.
India's role in the world market is small - 0.65% in exports, 0.77% in imports (2000). In spite of humble place in world turnover, India is the largest supplier of a number of goods: in 2000, India accounted for 10.4% of world exports of rice, 16.4% of tea, 11.2% of spices, 10.7% of pearls, precious and semi precious stones, 6.2% iron ore, 6.4% leather products, 4.4% cotton products. The importance of new high-tech industries is growing rapidly - in the end. 1990s exported by St. 1/3 of all products in the electronics industry and 70% of computer programs. In order to stimulate exports, the government promotes the creation of special production units that produce products for export - these are export-oriented enterprises, export-production zones, "production parks" of computer equipment, software and other high-tech products. Since 2000, special economic zones began to be created, which have even more favorable conditions for business development.
A new direction for India is the export of capital: in 1998, Indian capital participated in 788 joint ventures in 89 countries. In fulfilling its obligations as a member of the WTO, India only in 2000/01. eliminated quantitative restrictions on the import of 715 items of goods, reduced duties by an average of 30%.
A specific feature of foreign trade is a chronic trade deficit (million US dollars, 2002/03): exports 46071, imports 53866, a balance of 7795. The trade deficit is covered by a surplus on "invisible items" of the balance: money transfers due to frontier, income from tourism. For 2000/01 India exported 9.3 thousand items from agricultural products to software to 220 countries. The structure of exports is changing towards an increase in the share of manufacturing products (in 1999/2000 it was 78.7%), followed by jewelry -18% (90% of them are diamonds). Trends in changes in the structure of imports: a decrease in the share of consumer goods and an increase in the share of raw materials and semi-finished products for high-tech industries, oil, industrial diamonds.
Science and culture
A feature of education is the parallel existence of two subsystems: formal education (public and private sectors) and non-formal education. The system of formal education has stages: primary (the first stage is grades 1-5, the second is grades 6-8), secondary (the first stage is grades 9-10, the second is grades 11-12). Higher education - without a bachelor's degree (2-3 years of study in colleges), with a degree - training at institutes and universities. There are 228 universities in the country. The University Affairs Commission under the Ministry of Education is responsible for the development of higher education in the humanities. The All India Council for Technical Education is in charge of technical education. In 1995, a body was created whose task is to introduce higher education in rural areas - the National Council of Rural Institutions, which implements M. Gandhi's ideas about education as a means of socio-economic development of villages.
The non-formal education system began operating in 1979/80. It is designed to give knowledge to children (these are children from the poorest families) and adults (from 15 to 35 years old) who do not have literacy skills. There are more than 300 thousand of these schools in the country (177 thousand of them are exclusively for girls) with a total number of students of approx. 7.5 million people The largest organizations in charge of scientific activities: Council for Scientific and Industrial Development (SNIR), Indian Agricultural Research Council (IARC), Indian Medical Research Council. The central bodies for the management of science also include the departments: nuclear energy, electronics, space research, ocean, defense, environment and forest resources, unconventional energies, Ministry of Science and Technology (MST).
Industrial enterprises have more than 1200 of their own research laboratories. MNT coordinates the work of 9 national centers on problems of biology, meteorology, geology, chemistry, new materials and powder metallurgy. The main scientific potential is concentrated in the SNIR, which was created back in 1942. Now it includes 40 institutes and 80 laboratories with an annual budget of 8 billion rupees (2000) and an annual effect from its development of more than 450 billion rupees. It employs 22 thousand employees, of which 5,300 are research workers (60% have a doctorate). The main areas of its development, in which India occupies a leading position in the world: the design of aerospace vehicles, drugs, biotechnology, chemistry (catalysts and polymers), petrochemistry, new materials (composites), geo- and radiophysics.
Literature is 3.5 thousand years old. The earliest works are the Vedas, collections of hymns and ritual chants of the Indo-Aryans. The greatest monument is the epic poems Mahabharata and Ramayana. Kalidasa (4th century AD) was an important representative of Sanskrit literature. Famous authors of the Middle Ages are Kabir, Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas. Later, literature developed on the basis of local languages. The founder of Hindi literature was B. Harishchandra (1850-1885), prominent representatives - Premchand (1880-1936), Yashpal (1903-1976), U. Ashk (1910-1997). The largest representative of Bengali literature was R. Tagore (1861-1941), a poet, humanist writer and thinker who received worldwide recognition. A great contribution to the development of Tamil literature was made by R. Kirushnamurti-Kalki (1899-1954), Malayal - V.N. Menon (1878-1958), Urdu literature - K. Chandar (1913-1977). The visiting card of the country is the Taj Mahal, one of the seven wonders of the world. The mausoleum was built in the 17th century. in Agra by order of Emperor Shah Jahan. The cave temples of Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta, the temple complexes of Khajuraho and Mahabalipuram, the Jagannath and Surya temples, as well as the Palace of the Winds in Jaipur, the Nizam palace of Hyderabad, the museums of the Amera fortress, Gwaliora, Udaipur and the Red Fort in Delhi are very famous. A worthy example of modern architecture is the city of Chandigarh, designed by Corbusier. Leading Indian architects C. Korrea and B. Doshi. Contemporary painting is a synthesis of traditional Indian and European schools. Its founders are A. Tagore (1867-1938), D. Roy (1887-1972), A. Sher Gil (1913-1941).
Music is subdivided into classical (marga), folk (deshi) and film music. Its basis is the melodic structure of the raga, which is distinguished by certain modal and rhythmic features, an established sound range. The galaxy of famous performers is B. Joshi, R. Shankar, M. Subbulakshmi, father and son A. Rakhi and Z. Hussein.
Indian dance has its roots in antiquity. It is divided into classical, folk and film dance. There are 6 main styles of classical dance - bharata natyam, kathak, odissi, manipuri, kathali, kuchipudi. In Punjab they dance "bhangra", in Rajasthan "ghumar", in Gujarat "garbu". India is the largest film industry, producing over 1,000 feature films a year. The classics of Indian cinema are directors S. Ray and M. Sen, actors R. Kapur, G. Dutt.
This ancient country occupies the Indian subcontinent and the foothills of the Himalayas. In the Middle Ages, travelers from Europe sought to get to India, since many legends circulated about the innumerable treasures of this country, some of which later turned out to be true. In the Indian sultanate of Golconda, there were the largest mines where precious stones were mined: diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds. India is a multifaceted, rich country [...]
After the conquest of northern India by the Ghaznavids and the formation of Muslim states here, new types of structures appeared - mosques, mausoleums, tombs, minarets. The Qutub Minar Tower in Delhi (India), made of red sandstone, is the tallest in the country: its height is 72.6 m, the diameter at the foot is 14.3 m, and in the upper part it is 2.75 m. since then it is called "the seventh miracle of Hindustan". First floor […]
In the IV-V centuries. In India, the construction of Brahmanist temples was carried out, two types of them were formed - northern and southern. Religion saturated the entire life of an inhabitant of India, it even regulated the way of life and the nature of the dwelling. Brahmanism, for example, forbade building a dwelling of stone, even if it was a king's palace, and demanded a caste delimitation of building areas in cities. After the Muslim invasion in the south of India [...]
The rock dwellings of Bhimbetka (India) are located in the southern part of the Central Indian plateau at the foot of the Vindhya mountains. These are five groups of caves formed naturally in limestone rocks. Their walls are covered with paintings that date from the Mesolithic period to the end of prehistoric times. Interestingly, the inhabitants of the surrounding villages still support some cultural traditions that are depicted in prehistoric drawings. In ancient India, in the country [...]
On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, in the Indian state of Orissa, there is a small city of Puri, one of the most revered places in India. For those who practice Hinduism, visiting Puri is a sacred duty. Any Hindu knows from childhood: staying in the holy city cleanses from the sins of the present and past life and, no less important, gives a person considerable weight in the eyes of fellow believers. Main temple cities […]
Many centuries ago, this city was located on seven islands. Gradually, the water space that separated them was drained, and now it is a solid massif. As an industrial and commercial port of Western India, the city began to take shape at the end of the 13th century. In the middle of the 16th century, Bombay was captured by the Portuguese. In 1661, the dynastic marriage of the English king Charles II and Catherine of Portugal took place. As a wedding gift Karl [...]
In the XI century, on the site of modern Delhi, there was the city of Indraprastha, under this name it is mentioned in the ancient Indian epic "Mahabharata". For 500 years, Delhi was the capital of successive empires of the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire ... It was repeatedly destroyed by foreign conquerors: Tamerlane in 1399, Iranian Shah Nadir in 1739. In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English East India [...]
India is currently home to 950 million people. In 1931, the average life expectancy was 27 years, and now it has doubled, this is the result of an improvement in the food supply of the country's population and the development of health care in it. The increase in life expectancy over the period of independence is a positive indicator of the standard of living of the population, its material, psychological, physical, and genetic state. Medium [...]
The richness of Indian nature in its diversity. 3/4 of the country's territory is occupied by plains and plateaus. India resembles a huge triangle with its apex directed towards the Indian Ocean. Stretched along the base of the Indian triangle mountain systems Karakorum, Gin-Dukush and the Himalayas. To the south of the Himalayas lies the vast, fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west of the Indo-Gangetic Plain stretches the barren Thar Desert. Further south is the Deccan [...]
In the II-VI century. BC NS. in Northern India, the first states with monarchical and republican forms of government appeared: Magadha, Maurya, Chola and Pandya. Frequent wars led to the collapse of some states and the formation of new ones. Since the beginning of the XI century. the systematic invasions of the territory of India by the Muslim states, which formed the Delhi Sultanate, begin. In the XIV century. The Delhi Sultanate collapsed, [...]
Agriculture, as in colonial times, plays a very important role in the Indian economy. Agriculture in India has a pronounced crop production focus, although the country has the largest livestock in the world (230 million cattle, 120 million sheep and goats). But it is mainly used as a pulling force. Even milk is not drunk in the country (mainly with [...]
India is one of the largest industrialized powers in the developing world. Fuel - energy industry the country is developing at a faster pace, nevertheless, household fuel consumption is provided mainly by firewood, dung, agricultural waste. Coal industry concentrated in the north-east of the country in the Damodar river valley. This causes costly transportation. Oil production is underdeveloped (only in large oil-bearing regions in the Upper [...]
By absolute dimensions industrial production India is one of the 10 largest powers in the world, but in terms of the level of national product per capita, it only closes in 100 states. India holds 1st place in the world in tea harvesting, 2-4 places in rice, jute, sugarcane, banana harvests, wheat and cotton harvests. India is among the top twenty countries in terms of production [...]
India is probably the most multicultural country in the world. Suffice it to say that the constitutional languages of the country are declared: Hindi, Urdu, English, Punjabi, Gujarti, Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Assami, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Sanskrit (14 languages in total, the state is Hindi). It is especially worth mentioning the natural increase in the population of India. During the colonial period natural growth the population was extremely low due to [...]
The Republic of India is a state in South Asia, ranking seventh in the world in terms of area (3,287,590 km²) and second in terms of population (1,210,193,422 people in 2011).
India has borders with Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east, with Pakistan in the west, with China, Nepal and Bhutan in the northeast, with Sri Lanka in the south, with the Maldives in the southwest and with Indonesia in the southeast (sea borders) ... The territory of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, which is part of India, which is contested from India by Pakistan and China, has a border with Afghanistan.
The official languages of India are Hindi and English, while the population of the country speaks 1,652 dialects, and the constitution of India defines 21 official languages.
Today India is a member of the UN, IMF, World Bank, UNESCO, British Commonwealth nations, its economy is booming. Throughout its history, the country has preserved a diversity of nature and ancient cultural traditions, which makes India today a popular tourist destination for beach, wellness rest, ecotourism, cultural attractions of India are also popular.
How to get to India
The most logical and today practically the only possible way to get to India from Russia and the CIS countries is by air.
Regular daily direct flights from Moscow to Delhi are operated by Aeroflot.
Visa and customs
Russian citizens will need a visa to visit India. In some cases, you can extend it without leaving the country.
Import of foreign currency (and export of previously imported one) is unlimited, national currency is prohibited. More than 10,000 USD in cash (or the equivalent in another currency), as well as personal computers and laptops must be declared. Permitted duty-free import of 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 250 g of tobacco; alcoholic beverages - up to 0.95 liters; jewelry, food, household items and things - within the limits of personal needs.
It is prohibited to import drugs and drugs containing narcotic substances, weapons and ammunition without appropriate permits. The export of skins of tigers, wild animals and plumage of birds, skins and products from the skins of rare reptiles, and ivory, live plants, gold and silver in bars, jewelry worth more than 2000 INR (except for those purchased in duty-free) is prohibited, antiques made over 100 years ago.
Tours and attractions in India
India is one of the most interesting Asian countries. This is the homeland ancient civilizations famous for its natural and historical resources. The mixture of different religions, cultures and traditions gives the country a special flavor and unique charm.
Undoubtedly, the "pearl" and the most famous landmark of India known to the whole world is the Taj Mahal mausoleum-mosque in the city of Agra.
It is a magnificent structure of translucent marble, built by order of the emperor of the Mongols, Shah Jahan, in honor of his deceased wife. Agra is one of the largest tourist centers India. It is also worth visiting the majestic Agra Fort (the residence of the Mongol rulers), the Shah Jahan's palace, the Pearl Mosque, the Tomb of Itimad-Ud-Daula, the Chini-ka-Rauza mausoleum, the Tomb of Akbar the Great in Sikandra (a suburb of Agra), the Rambach Garden and Fatehpur Sikri ...
The capital of India, Delhi (or rather, the capital is officially considered New Delhi - the Delhi region) - ancient city with a colossal number of temples of all religions, each of which is a real masterpiece of architecture. The most interesting are such religious buildings as the Lotus Temple, Lakshmi Narayan, Akshardham, Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, Qutb Minar, Jama Masjid Mosque, St. James Church and Bahá'í Temple. Among the main attractions of the city, it is worth highlighting the Gate of India and Rajpath ("royal road"), the Rashtrapati Bhavan Palace, the Red Fort, Humayun's Tomb, Safdarjung's Tomb, Nizamuddin's Mausoleum and Lodi Gardens. Delhi is also worth a visit National Museum, Tibet House, Crafts Museum, Indira Gandhi Memorial Museum, Planetarium, National zoo and the unique International Toilet Museum
A popular tourist destination is the city of Mumbai (Bombay) - the largest and one of the most cosmopolitan cities in India on the coast of the Arabian Sea. Mumbai is the birthplace of Indian cinema and an important cultural center of the country. The most interesting sights are the Gate of India, Chhatrapati Shivaji Station (formerly Victoria Terminus), Jama Masjid Mosque, St. Thomas Cathedral, St. John and St. Thomas the Apostle Church, Afghan Memorial Church, Mahalakshmi Temple, Flora Fountain, Mausoleum and Haji Mosque. Ali, Planetarium, Prince of Wales Museum, Gallery of Modern Art, Victoria Gardens and Elephanta Island.
India is a stunning country, every corner that is famous for its historical, cultural, architectural and natural attractions. It is impossible to list all interesting places of this tourist paradise. Among all the diversity, you should definitely visit the Golden Temple of Harmandir Sahib in the city of Amritsar, sacred city Varanasi on the banks of the Ganges River, Hawa Mahal or the Palace of the Winds and Amber Fort in Jaipur, Nalandu in Bihar province, Mahabodhi Mandir temple in the vicinity of Kolkata, Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra state, Virupaksha Temple in Hampi and Lake Palace in Udaipur city.
Both nature reserves and sights of India impress with their splendor - National park Kanha, Valley of Flowers, Dudhsagar Falls at Bhagwan Mahavir Nature Reserve, Anshi National Park, Nanda Devi National Park, Zuari Nature Reserve, Botanical Garden Lal Bagh, Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Eravikulam National Park and of course the stunning beaches of Goa.
Climate and weather in India
There are several types of climate in India: humid tropical, dry tropical, subtropical monsoon and alpine. In most of the country, there are three seasons: monsoon - hot and humid (June - October); trade wind - cool and dry (November - February); transitional - very hot and dry (March - May). During the monsoon period, up to 12,000 mm of precipitation falls (Cherrapunji on the Shillong Plateau is the rainiest place in the world). On the plains average temperature January - 15 - 27 ° C, in May everywhere 28–35 ° C, sometimes up to 45–48 ° C. During the wet season, temperatures around 28 ° C are observed throughout India.
How to avoid problems
Ladies for walking outside the hotel should dress more modestly, without bare shoulders and miniskirts. But in the hotels themselves it is better to use a safe and always remember the commandment “do not tempt”, not leaving valuables or money in plain sight or in easily accessible places. Locked in a suitcase or bag, no one will touch them.
No special vaccinations are required before traveling to India. As with almost everywhere in the south, drinking raw tap water is not recommended. Hands and purchased fruits and vegetables must be thoroughly washed with soap. And to heighten peace of mind, exclude fresh vegetable salads from the diet, using only heat-treated vegetables (in general, a newly arrived European should not eat everything indiscriminately in India). Another good tip: always have sanitary napkins with you, especially when traveling.
The cow is a sacred animal and the personification of the mother in Hinduism, therefore, in some states of India, eating beef is prohibited, and killing a cow is a criminal offense.
Continuing the theme of hygiene, we note that in the Indian province this concept is completely abstract, as well as "cleanliness in the streets." If your courageous clients are not going to sit on the territory of the hotel for the whole vacation, be sure to prepare them for this. In addition, the "white sahib" in Indian cities must always be ready to "attack" the extremely annoying sellers of all sorts of rubbish, pipers, fakirs, beggars and just curious people.
In the Indian hinterland, where Europeans are still very rare, local population can show a lively, but absolutely disinterested interest in tourists. In many places it is still considered a good omen to touch the "white brother". So do not be surprised (and even more so annoyed) that guests from the north will be scrutinized there, offering a handshake or clapping on the shoulder.
At the entrance to any temple, guests will be asked to remove their shoes. Some temples are allowed to enter in socks, which are best thrown away at the exit. Therefore, it is necessary to stock up on a sufficient number of pairs of socks or plastic shoe covers before the trip.
Some temples will not be allowed with bare shoulders (for the most part, this applies to the fairer sex), as well as in short skirts or shorts (the latter already applies to men). Therefore, when going on an excursion, ladies should take a scarf with them to cover their shoulders in front of the entrance to the temple (and best of all, put on a T-shirt). Men are advised to wear trousers just in case.
Indian cuisine
Vegetable food is the basis of nutrition for the peoples of India. Rice, corn, dal, peas, lentils and other legumes, as well as inferior flour cakes (chapatis) and vegetables, are an integral part of Indian cuisine.
Most of the inhabitants of this country do not eat meat. An exception is made by Muslims who eat lamb, goat and poultry dishes. It is strictly forbidden by various religious laws and ancient customs to eat cow meat and, in general, cattle meat. Preference is given to fish dishes (especially freshwater ones), as well as squid, lobster, shrimp and oyster dishes.
For Indian national cuisine the use of a large amount of garlic and pepper is characteristic. The most popular condiment in India is curry, which is used in many sauces. They include red and black peppers, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, nuts, mint, mustard, mayonnaise, parsley, dill, garlic, saffron, onions, tomatoes, etc. spices, red hot masala sauce.
Indians are very fond of pilaf, cooked with legumes, and sometimes with vegetables, with the addition of a small amount of vegetable oil.
Fruits occupy an important place in the diet: melons, dried and fresh mulberries, apricots, apples, etc.
Tea is very popular in India, which is drunk with hot milk, and milk is served separately. No less sympathy is enjoyed by such drinks as coffee, nimbu punch made from lemon juice and water, kanji from sauerkraut juice and mustard seed, and mango juice.
Food in India is served on a large, round brass or stainless steel tray. Katori are placed on the tray - metal cups for each dish, which are located along the edges of the hoist, and in the center of the katori with an obligatory attribute - boiled rice.
Alcoholic drinks in India are not usually served at lunch, and food is usually washed down with cold water, which is poured into metal glasses and must be placed to the left of the hoist.
At every meal, fruits or fruit juices, spices are always put on the table.
India beaches
The coast of India, with a total length of almost 6,000 km, boasts one of the most beautiful beaches in the world. Most "mastered" and popular beach resorts are located in the states of Goa and Kerala. The beaches of Mumbai also have a vibrant nightlife, but Russians are not yet particularly attracted to it. These beaches are famous for their crazy incendiary discos, which gather not only local "golden youth", but also wealthy European heirs of famous families. Also, the beaches of the states of Karnataka (Arabian Sea) and Tamil Nadu (Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean) remain practically undeveloped by our tourists.
The beaches of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep are great for diving and snorkelling. These are quite inaccessible and, as a result, sparsely populated beaches of India: true lovers of solitude come there to enjoy the beauty of the wild nature.
Souvenirs from India
Whatever your vacation in India - beach or sightseeing, you will not be able to avoid shopping. The country has a huge number of shopping centers(v big cities), shops, private craft and souvenir shops, markets.
Markets are the national flavor of India. It is absolutely impossible not to visit them while in the country. Indian sellers warmly welcome their customers and offer goods for any, even the most demanding taste. The main rule of visiting the Indian market is your willingness to bargain a lot and persistently. Such a tactic will not only save you 20-50% of the cost of the goods, but also arouse the respect of the seller. Vendors in the markets of large cities in India speak English language besides, a calculator and sign language will help in the bargaining process.
In the list of goods that should be brought from India, the first place is, of course, tea. In India, there are many exclusive varieties of tea, to buy them it is worth visiting specialty stores, where they will pack your purchase in elegant satin bags.
Another essential purchase in India is natural fabrics and products from them. The world fame of India was brought by Rajasthan cotton with a characteristic pattern and bright color, cashmere from the province of the same name of Kashmir, wool shawls from the Kullu Valley in Himachal state, silk from Murshidabad. Of the textiles, the most popular among tourists are the national attire of Indian women - saris. Tourists are unlikely to be able to wear a sari at home in niches, but there is no way not to buy this multi-meter miracle. You can make a similar purchase in the market or in a specialized store.
It is impossible to leave India without buying spices. In the markets of the country, you can find real multicolored placers of various types of natural spices. It is worth buying turmeric, cloves, saffron, curry, etc. Besides markets, spices can be found in any store.
Another pride of India is jewelry. The city of Jaipur is especially famous, being the largest center for processing semi-precious and precious stones with many jewelry stores. Only in Jaipur there is a huge selection of unique silver items with decent quality gems and reasonable prices. Jewelry made of copper, brass, bronze, silver and gold with inlay and enamel, which are sold everywhere, are also good. It is better to buy jewelry in specialized stores.
Souvenirs from India - cute little things that will remind you of a good holiday for a long time: sandalwood figurines from Karnataka, rosewood from Kerala and Madras; Indian walnut from Kashmir; weapons steel products with and without inlay. The most famous Indian figurine is the elephant figurine, which can be bought in any shop and souvenir shop. If you find a set of seven elephants hidden inside each other like a nesting doll, it is guaranteed to bring you good luck. Figures of the gods of the Hindu pantheon and Buddhist ritual objects (tank scrolls, singing bowls, prayer flags and drums, bronze Buddhas) are also widely sold.
Of the overall Indian souvenirs, one cannot fail to mention local carpets, often woven by hand and decorated with semiprecious stones and embroidery with gold threads - the most luxurious thing!
India hotels
Hotels in the resorts of India are being built no higher than a palm tree (9 m) and no closer than 300 m to the sea due to strong tides. Coastal establishments of the 5 * category make an impression: they are not just vacation spots with a wide range of services, but fabulous palaces, where the staff tries to fulfill almost all the wishes of tourists. The most sophisticated hotels in this category include the hotels of the international "chains" of the Taj group, Marriott and Hyatt. But urban "fives" do not always correspond to their high rank - the service in them sometimes leaves much to be desired.
"Fours" in resort areas offer their guests good service, a fairly large range of services, including traditional, specific only for India programs for health. With urban establishments of the same level, the situation is worse - it is not easy to find the quality corresponding to their stars. Often the four stars on the facade serve only as a decoration for the building. Well, there is nothing to say about city "three-ruble notes", although each rule has a pleasant exception: it is quite possible to stumble upon even two stars with clean rooms and good service. Most often, these hotels are owned by former military personnel or families from the higher castes.
Medicine
High risk of contracting hepatitis A. Prior vaccination is highly recommended. Avoid drinking raw water and unpeeled vegetables and fruits.
Emergency telephones
Police - 100, fire brigade - 101, ambulance - 102.
National characteristics of India. Traditions
Advice for women: Legs should be covered with clothing, but not tight-fitting. It is not customary to hug and kiss in public. Greet by joining the fingers at forehead level. Do not try to shake hands first, let alone kiss. Go around all buildings, especially religious buildings, on the left side. If you are being served tea, wait until you are invited to a tea party. If you leave, empty the cup and leave it.
