Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, the French occupied the Rhine region of Germany. Coal mines in the Saar region were transferred to France for 15 years. Belgium and Denmark received small territorial increments, and Poland received significant ones. Danzig (Gdansk) became a free city. Germany had to pay reparations. General conscription was prohibited in Germany, it could not have submarines, military and naval aviation, the number of the volunteer army should not exceed 100 thousand people.
The treaty with Austria fixed the disintegration of Austria-Hungary and prohibited the unification of Austria with Germany. Part of the territory of Austria-Hungary went to Italy, Poland, Romania. Bulgaria was deprived of some lands in favor of Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia. The Ottoman Empire was deprived of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Armenia, almost all possessions in Europe. However, after the revolution in Turkey in 1918-1923. and the defeat of Armenia and Greece in the wars with Turkey, it increased its territory.
New states arose in Europe: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland. The German colonies in Africa were divided between England and France, as well as the Union of South Africa. Japan seized the islands in the Pacific Ocean belonging to Germany and the possessions of Germany in China. Australia received part of New Guinea. The possessions of Turkey in the Middle East were divided by England and France. The independence of Iraq was recognized.
Revolution in Germany.
In Germany, the aggravated situation during the war years escalated in November 1918 into a revolution. It began with the dispersal of a demonstration of sailors in Kiel. A soldiers 'council and a workers' council were formed there. Then such councils began to appear in other cities. In a number of places, power was in their hands. On November 9, the abdication of the emperor and elections to the National Assembly were announced. Power was in the hands of the Council of People's Plenipotentiaries, headed by a social democrat F. Ebert... The establishment of an 8-hour working day was proclaimed, and the rights of trade unions were expanded. However, the left-wing Social Democrats, led by K. Liebknecht and R. Luxemburg, who created the Communist Party in December 1918, advocated deepening the revolution. In January 1919, an open struggle broke out between the government and the workers, and a general strike broke out in Berlin. The troops suppressed the uprising, Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed. But the speeches and strikes continued. On April 13, 1919, a Soviet republic was proclaimed in Munich, which was defeated two weeks later.
The government fought the workers not only by force of arms. It tried to take into account a number of their requirements in the Constitution adopted in the summer of 1919 by the National Constituent Assembly in Weimar. The Weimar constitution established universal suffrage, and the president received large powers. The last revolutionary event was the uprising of workers in Hamburg under the leadership of the communist E. Thalmann in October 1923. It was suppressed.
Revolution in Hungary.
The Communist Party was formed in Hungary on November 20, 1918. Many of its leaders were participants in the revolution in Russia. The party was led by Bela Kun. On the evening of March 21, 1919, the Budapest Soviet of Workers' Deputies proclaimed Hungary a Soviet republic. The Council of People's Commissars was formed. Locally, all power was concentrated in their hands by the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.
Banks were nationalized industrial enterprises, transport, land of landowners. The Entente sent troops from Romania and Czechoslovakia to fight Hungary. On August 1, 1919, Soviet power was abolished. As a result of the elections, the admiral came to power M.Horthy, who became the regent of the country, since the monarchy formally remained in Hungary.
Revolutionary movement in Italy.
The rise of the labor movement was observed in all European countries. The struggle was especially acute in Italy. In 1920, Italian workers took over factories and factories and ran them for almost a month. The peasants occupied the landowners' lands. The government and businessmen did not dare to use weapons. They promised to pass a law on the introduction of workers' control at enterprises and to raise wages. The workers left the factories. However, the law did not come into force.
Communist movement.
The strengthening of the labor movement, the successes achieved by the workers in many countries, the events in Russia have led everywhere to the strengthening of the role of the Social Democrats. There was no unity within this movement. Many believed that the workers had already achieved considerable and now it is necessary to consolidate these gains and make further progress through gradual reforms. Others called for vigorous action, the seizure of power following the example of the Bolsheviks. Supporters of this course began to create their own communist parties. In March 1919, delegates from these parties and organizations close to them gathered in Moscow for the Constituent Congress, which announced the creation of Communist International (Comintern). Its task was declared to be the struggle for a world revolution and the creation of a world Soviet republic. The Comintern became world headquarters revolution, and the national communist parties were considered its sections. The governing body of the Comintern - the Executive Committee - was located in Moscow. The Comintern did a great job of promoting communist ideas, creating communist organizations, preparing speeches against governments in different countries.
The supporters of the moderate views in the social democratic movement united in 1923 in Socialist International.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the territorial division of the world was completely completed. Only its violent redistribution remained possible, and such attempts were made in the Spanish-American, Anglo-Boer, Russian-Japanese, Balkan and other wars, but especially in the first and second world wars. As a result of the First World War, the borders of almost all the belligerent countries changed; the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian empires collapsed, revolutions took place in Russia, Germany, Hungary, Turkey. The defeated colonies came under the control of the victorious countries - France, Great Britain, Japan. Received independence Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland. In Turkey, unprecedented "ethnic cleansing" took place - Armenians and Greeks were exterminated or deported. The communist regime, which had become entrenched in Russia, took a course towards "world revolution", opposing itself to the whole world.
Following the results of the Second World War, the borders of Germany, the USSR, Poland, Japan, China and other countries were changed; carried out interstate deportations of Germans, Hungarians, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Poles, Ukrainians, Japanese, and within the USSR - the peoples of the Crimea, the Caucasus and the Volga region. The Baltic countries, Moldova and Tuva became part of the USSR. Immediately after the war, an arms race unprecedented in scale and danger unfolded between the "socialist" and "imperialist" blocs of states - " cold war". The confrontation between the two systems led to the formation of two German states (West Germany and East Germany), two Korean states (North Korea and South Korea), two Chinese (PRC and Taiwan), two Vietnamese (North and South).
God settled people in their homeland. Forcibly separating from the homeland is tantamount to killing the spirit ("The Charter of the Germans Expelled from the Homeland"). The state of Israel was formed on the territory of Palestine in 1947, where the European Jews who survived the Nazi massacre went. The partition of Palestine led to conflict with the Arabs, and the Jews left the Muslim countries.
V Arab world in the 50-80 years. repeated attempts are being made to create a United Arab Republic (UAR). Alternately, Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, Sudan, Libya concluded agreements on its formation, but the alliances either soon disintegrated or did not take place at all.
In accordance with the UN decision on the decolonization of the dependent territories, there was a "dissolution" colonial empires... Already in 1945-50. receive the independence of the country of the South and South-East Asia... In the 50-60s. almost all colonies, protectorates and mandate territories in Africa, Asia and Caribbean America became politically independent. K ser. 70s colonies on Earth have practically disappeared. Among independent states there were many tiny countries with scanty populations; all attempts to keep them within the framework of larger associations were unsuccessful.
Great Britain in the colonies did not destroy the traditional systems of power, but paid special attention to the training of administrative personnel from among local residents... The Englishman acted in the role of an adviser, and trained locals were engaged in direct execution of power functions. Independence was granted to the colonies after conscientious preparation of power structures (army, police, finance, political parties) and the suppression of unwanted movements (for example, Mau Mau in Kenya, communist partisans in Malaysia, etc.).
The result of British policy was the transformation of the empire into the Commonwealth of Nations, led by the English queen. Today's Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary union of 56 states with a population of 1.5 billion people, in which Great Britain, without interfering in the internal affairs of countries, guarantees convertibility of local currencies, economic and military assistance, student education at British universities, etc. Political and economic situation in countries British Commonwealth generally better than in the former possessions of other powers.
France, Portugal, Belgium relied on the direct management of possessions, appointing their specialists sent from the metropolis as chiefs. This gave a gain in the effectiveness of the management apparatus, but the disadvantage was the relationship with local population: It is one thing when an official of your nationality is “pissed off” at you, and quite another thing when his nationality is different. To combat separatism, the practice was to declare possessions as "integral" parts of the state. Independence was provided to the colonies without much preparation, either "overnight" (the year of African Freedom - 1960), or after a long war (Vietnam, Algeria, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau).
The economic and political situation in most of the former possessions of these powers deteriorated; about 3 million European colonists and assimilated natives had to be evacuated. Former French and Portuguese territories dominate the world's hot spots. France remains the only metropolis that maintains a military presence to maintain order in the former colonies. The French Union, proclaimed after the dissolution of the empire, existed for only a few years - there were no people willing to remain in it. France's cooperation with former colonies is carried out only on the basis of bilateral agreements, and Portugal has completely lost ties with the former "overseas territories".
The Soviet "struggle for peace" after 1945 was marked by the participation of Soviet troops (with more than 1.5 million participants) in more than 30 local wars and conflicts. These include "restoring order" in Hungary, the German Democratic Republic and Czechoslovakia; support for "theirs" in China, Korea, Vietnam, Egypt, Algeria, Ethiopia, Angola, Nicaragua, etc .; finally, the war in Afghanistan.
The natural result was economic (20% of the national income went to the army) and moral distress and collapse of the USSR, and with it the "socialist camp" and regimes of "socialist orientation". Overnight (isn't it the French version?), More than 20 new states emerged, some of which fell into the category of "hot spots" (Tajikistan, the countries of the Caucasus and the Balkans).
Recent changes on political map- the formation of the Palestinian Authority in the Arab lands occupied by Israel (1996), the return of Hong Kong to China due to the expiration of its lease by Great Britain (1997).
The main directions of the post-war peace settlement were outlined by the leading powers of the anti-Hitler coalition. At the conferences in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, the main issues were agreed upon; on territorial changes, on the punishment of war criminals, on the creation of a special international organization to maintain international peace and security. The Allied Powers decided to occupy Germany and Japan with the aim of eradicating militarism and fascism. The territorial conquests of Germany, Italy, Japan and their allies were annulled. The allies agreed to draw the border between Germany and Poland along the line of the Oder and Neisse rivers (Odra and Nissa). Eastern border Poland was to run along the Curzon Line. The city of Konigsberg and the surrounding areas were transferred to the USSR.
One of the issues of the post-war settlement was the conclusion of peace treaties. Since Germany did not have a government, the victorious powers first of all concluded treaties with Germany's European allies - Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland.
Italy recognized the sovereignty of Albania and Ethiopia. The Dodecanese islands occupied by Italy were returned to Greece. The Julian extreme, with the exception of Trieste, was transferred to Yugoslavia. Trieste with a small area adjacent to it was declared a "free territory". (In 1954, by agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia Western part"Free territory" together with the city of Trieste went to Italy, and the eastern - to Yugoslavia).
Italy lost its colonies in Africa - Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. In accordance with the terms of the armistice with Romania and Hungary, the peace treaties secured the return of part of Transylvania to Romania.
Finland returned the Petsamo (Pechenga) region to the USSR, ceded to it in 1920 by the Soviet state, and provided the Porkkala-Udd territory on the northern coast Gulf of Finland(near Helsinki) on lease for a period of 50 years to create a Soviet naval base there (in 1955 the USSR gave up its lease rights ahead of schedule). At the Yalta and Postdam conferences, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain agreed that after the surrender, Germany would be subjected to a long occupation. The Post-Damascus conference provided for the preservation of Germany "as a single whole", but at the same time its territory was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, British, French and American. The capital - Berlin, located on the territory of the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors of occupation. The occupation regime was also established in Austria, which in 1938-1945. was part of Germany.
Later, there was a turn in the policy of the United States, Britain and France from an alliance with the USSR to a struggle against it. As a result, these states embarked on a course of revising the Potsdam agreements and restoring the economic and military potential of Germany. In 1946, the United States and England united their zones of occupation into the so-called Bizonia (double zone). In 1948 the French zone joined them - Trizonia was formed. The occupation authorities gradually transferred the management functions into the hands of the German administration. In August 1949, elections to the parliament of West Germany were held, and on September 7, the creation of a new German state, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), was announced. On October 7, 1949 (in the Soviet zone of occupation), the German Democratic Republic(GDR). On German soil, two states arose with different social and political systems. The defeat of Germany and its allies with the decisive participation of the armed forces of the USSR created a favorable environment for victory in a number of countries of Eastern Europe people's democratic and socialist revolutions. A bloc of socialist states was formed (Polish People's Republic, Czechoslovak Soviet Socialist Republic, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and others). Disagreements between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain after the end of World War II also affected the preparation of a peace treaty with Japan. It was intended to limit Japanese sovereignty to four main islands. Korea was promised independence. Northeastern China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan (Formosa) and other Chinese islands captured by Japan were supposed to be returned to China. The Soviet Union came back South Sakhalin and transmitted Kurile Islands that once belonged to Russia.
During the hostilities, the Americans occupied all japanese islands, as well as the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana islands in the Pacific Ocean (therefore, in Japan, unlike Germany and Austria, there were no different zones of occupation). South Korea also entered the zone of American occupation (up to the 38th parallel), and North Korea (where the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was later formed) was occupied by Soviet troops. In 1947, the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands were transferred to the UN trusteeship (on behalf of the UN, the trusteeship was carried out by the United States). The USSR, USA and Great Britain could not come to an agreement on a peace treaty with Japan (conference in San Francisco, 1951). The United States of America entered into a so-called security treaty with Japan, which gave them the right to maintain their military forces there.
An important event international life was the creation of the United Nations (UN). The founding conference took place in April 1945 in San Francisco. According to the Charter, the governing bodies of the UN are the General Assembly and the Security Council. The UN has an Economic and Social Council. Guardianship Council. The International Court of Justice and the Secretariat, headed by a Secretary General, elected for a term of 5 years.
The day of the entry into force of the UN Charter - October 24, 1945 - is annually celebrated as the day of the UN. In 1945, 51 states joined the UN, at present there are already about 180. Gradually, the UN has become the most authoritative international organization playing a significant role in preserving peace, preventing nuclear war, fighting colonialism, and protecting human rights.
The events of the world war turned out to be a difficult test for the peoples. At its final stage, it became obvious that some of the warring states could not withstand the difficulties that befell them. First of all, these were multinational empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman. The burden of war they bore exacerbated social and national contradictions. A long-term exhausting war with external opponents grew into a struggle of peoples against their own rulers. It is known how this happened in Russia. And here is how Austria-Hungary collapsed.Dates and events
October 16, 1918- the head of the Hungarian government announced the dissolution of the alliance with Austria by Hungary.
28 of October- The National Czechoslovak Committee (established in July 1918) decided to form an independent Czechoslovak state.
29th of October- the National Council was created in Vienna and the independence of German Austria was proclaimed; on the same day, the National Council in Zagreb proclaimed the state independence of the South Slavs of Austria-Hungary.
October 30- in Krakow, the Liquidation Commission was created, which took over the management of the Polish lands, which had previously been part of Austria-Hungary, and proclaimed the belonging of these lands to the reviving Polish state; on the same day, the National Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina (which were captured by Austria-Hungary in 1908) announced the annexation of both lands to Serbia.
At the final stage of the world war, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire also took place, from which the territories inhabited by non-Turkish peoples separated.
As a result of the fall of multinational empires in Europe, a number of new states emerged. First of all, these were the countries that restored the once lost independence - Poland, Lithuania and others. The revival required significant efforts. At times it was especially difficult to do this. Thus, the "gathering" of Polish lands, previously divided between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia, began during the war, in 1917, and only in November 1918 power passed into the hands of a single provisional government of the Polish Republic. Some of the new states first appeared on the map of Europe in this composition and borders, for example, the Republic of Czechoslovakia, which united two kindred Slavic people- Czechs and Slovaks (proclaimed on October 28, 1918). The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes (proclaimed on December 1, 1918), later named Yugoslavia, became a new multinational state.
The formation of a sovereign state was a turning point in the life of each of the peoples. However, it did not solve all the problems. The legacy of the war was economic devastation and aggravated social contradictions. Revolutionary unrest did not subside after independence.
Paris Peace Conference
On January 18, 1919, a peace conference opened at the Palace of Versailles near Paris. Politicians and diplomats from 32 states had to determine the results of the war, paid for with the blood and sweat of millions of people who fought on the fronts and worked in the rear of the people. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to the conference.The main role at the conference belonged to representatives of the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, but in reality the main proposals were made by three politicians - US President W. Wilson, British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George and French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau. They represented the conditions of peace in different ways. Wilson back in January 1918 proposed a program for a peaceful settlement and post-war device international life - the so-called "14 points"(on its basis, an armistice was concluded with Germany in November 1918).
The "14 Points" provided for the following: the establishment of a just peace and the rejection of secret diplomacy; freedom of navigation; equality in economic relations between states; arms limitation; settlement of colonial issues taking into account the interests of all peoples; liberation of the occupied territories and the principles of determining the boundaries of a number European states; the formation of an independent Polish state, including "all lands inhabited by Poles" and having access to the sea; creation of an international organization guaranteeing the sovereignty and integrity of all countries.
The program reflected both the aspirations of American diplomacy and the personal views of W. Wilson. Before being elected president, he was a university professor for many years, and if before he tried to familiarize students with the truth and ideals of justice, now - whole nations. Obviously, the author's desire to oppose the “positive democratic program” to the ideas of the Bolsheviks and the foreign policy of Soviet Russia played an important role in the advancement of the “14 points”. In a confidential conversation at that time, he admitted: "The ghost of Bolshevism is lurking everywhere ... All over the world there is a grave concern."
French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau took a different position. Its goals had a practical orientation - to achieve compensation for all losses of France in the war, maximum territorial and monetary compensation, as well as the economic and military weakening of Germany. Clemenceau adhered to the motto "Germany will pay for everything!" For intransigence and fierce defense of his point of view, the conference participants called him the nickname "tiger" that had stuck with him.
The experienced and flexible politician D. Lloyd George tried to balance the positions of the parties and avoid extreme decisions. He wrote: “... it seems to me that we should try to draw up a peace treaty as objective arbiters (judges), forgetting about the passion of war. This treaty should have three goals in mind. First of all, to ensure justice in taking into account Germany's responsibility for the outbreak of the war and for the ways in which it was waged. Secondly, it must be a treaty that a responsible German government can sign with the confidence that it is able to fulfill its assigned obligations. Thirdly, it should be a treaty that will not contain any provocations of the subsequent war and will create an alternative to Bolshevism by offering all reasonable people a real settlement of the European problem ... "
The discussion of the peace terms lasted for almost six months. Behind the scenes of the official work of the commissions and committees, the main decisions were made by the participants " big three"- Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. They conducted closed consultations and agreements, “forgetting” about “open diplomacy” and other principles proclaimed by W. Wilson. An important event in the course of the protracted discussions was the decision to create an international organization contributing to the maintenance of peace - League of Nations.
June 28, 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors of the Grand Palace of Versailles, a peace treaty was signed between the allied powers with Germany. Under the terms of the treaty, Germany transferred Alsace and Lorraine to France, the Eupen district, Malmedy - Belgium, the Poznan region and parts of Pomerania and Upper Silesia - Poland, the northern part of Schleswig - Denmark (following a plebiscite). The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the Entente troops, and on the right bank a demilitarized zone was established. The Saar region came under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a “free city”, Memel (Klaipeda) seceded from Germany (later included in Lithuania). In total, 1/8 of the territory, on which 1/10 of the country's population lived, was rejected from Germany. In addition, Germany was deprived of colonial possessions, its rights in the Shandong province in China were transferred to Japan. Limits were imposed on the number (no more than 100 thousand people) and armaments of the German army. Germany also had to pay reparations- payment to individual countries for damage caused as a result of the German attack.
Versailles-Washington system
The Versailles Treaty was not limited to solving the German question. It contained provisions on the League of Nations - an organization created for the purpose of settling international disputes and conflicts (the Charter of the League of Nations was also cited here).Later, peace treaties were signed with Germany's former allies - Austria (September 10, 1919), Bulgaria (November 27, 1919), Hungary (June 4, 1920), Turkey (August 10, 1920). They determined the borders of these countries, which were established after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the seizure of part of the territories from them in favor of the victorious powers. For Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, restrictions on the number of armed forces were introduced, and reparations to the winners were provided for. The terms of the treaty with Turkey were particularly tough. She lost all her possessions in Europe, on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa. The Turkish armed forces were reduced, it was forbidden to keep the fleet. The area of the Black Sea straits passed under the control of an international commission. This treaty, humiliating for the country, was replaced in 1923, after the victory of the Turkish revolution.
The League of Nations, established in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, took part in the redistribution of colonial possessions. The so-called mandate system, according to which the colonies taken from Germany and its allies under the mandate of the League of Nations were transferred under the tutelage of "advanced" countries, primarily Great Britain and France, which were able to occupy a dominant position in the League of Nations. At the same time, the United States of America, whose president put forward the idea and actively contributed to the creation of the League of Nations, did not join this organization and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles. This indicated that new system eliminating some contradictions in international relations, gave rise to new ones.
The post-war settlement could not be limited to Europe and the Middle East. Significant problems also existed in the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. There, the interests of the British, French and new contenders for influence - the United States and Japan, who had previously penetrated the region, clashed, and their rivalry turned out to be especially sharp. To solve the problems, a conference was called in Washington (November 1921 - February 1922). It was attended by representatives of the USA, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China. Soviet Russia, whose borders were in this region, did not receive an invitation to the conference this time either.
Several treaties were signed at the Washington Conference. They secured the rights of the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan to the territories they owned in this region (for Japan, this meant the recognition of its rights to the captured possessions of Germany), and established the ratio of the naval forces of individual countries. The question of China was especially considered. On the one hand, the principle of respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China was proclaimed, and on the other, the provision of "equal opportunities" for the great powers in this country. Thus, the monopoly seizure of China by one of the powers was prevented (a similar threat existed from Japan), but hands were free for the joint exploitation of the wealth of this vast country.
The alignment of forces and mechanisms of international relations in Europe and the world that took shape by the beginning of the 1920s were called Versailles-Washington system.
Old and new in international relations
Since 1920, the Soviet state began to establish relations with neighboring countries by signing peace treaties with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland. In 1921, agreements on friendship and cooperation were concluded with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey. They were based on the recognition of the independence of these states, the equality of partners, and in this they differed from the semi-cabal agreements imposed on the countries of the East by the Western powers.At the same time, following the signing of the Anglo-Soviet trade agreement (March 1921), the question arose of renewing economic ties Russia with leading European countries. V 1922 year... representatives of Soviet Russia were invited to an international economic conference in Genoa(it opened on April 10). The Soviet delegation was headed by the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G.V. Chicherin. The Western powers hoped to gain access to Russian natural resources and the market, as well as to find ways of economic and political influence on Russia. The Soviet state was interested in establishing economic ties with the outside world and diplomatic recognition.
The means of pressure on Russia from the West was the demand to pay off the external debts of tsarist Russia and the Provisional Government and compensation for property foreign citizens nationalized by the Bolsheviks. The Soviet country was ready to recognize the pre-war debts of Russia and the right of former foreign owners to receive in concession the property previously owned by them, subject to the legal recognition of the Soviet state and the provision of financial incentives and loans to it. Russia offered to cancel military debts (to declare invalid). At the same time, the Soviet delegation submitted a proposal for a general reduction in armaments. The Western powers did not agree with these proposals. They insisted on the payment by Russia of all debts, including military ones (in the amount of about 19 billion gold rubles), the return of all nationalized property to its former owners, and the abolition of the monopoly of foreign trade in the country. The Soviet delegation considered these demands unacceptable and, for its part, proposed that the Western powers compensate for the losses caused to Russia by the intervention and blockade (39 billion gold rubles). The negotiations are at an impasse.
It was not possible to reach a general agreement at the conference. But Soviet diplomats were able to negotiate with representatives of the German delegation in Rapallo (a suburb of Genoa). April 16 was concluded Soviet-German treaty on the resumption of diplomatic relations. Both countries have abandoned claims for damages caused to each other during the war. Germany recognized the nationalization of German property in Russia, while Russia refused to receive reparations from Germany. The treaty came as a surprise to international diplomatic and political circles both because of the very fact of its signing and in terms of its content. Contemporaries noted that he gave the impression of an exploding bomb. It was the success of the diplomats of the two countries and an example for others. It became more and more obvious that the problem of relations with Soviet Russia had become one of the main problems of international politics at that time.
References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General history... XX - early XXI century.
The most significant changes in the territory in the first quarter of the 18th century, reflected in the political and economic development of the country, took place in the northwest. As a result of the Northern War (1700–1721), Russia not only returned the lands that had previously belonged to it, but also annexed a significant part of the Baltic states. According to the Treaty of Nishtad in 1721, she received Ingria (Izhora land) between Luga, Neva and the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Shlisselburg (Oreshek); Estland and Livonia from the Gulf of Finland to the lower reaches of the Western Dvina with Riga, Dorpat, Revel, Narva and other cities, as well as a part to the north-west of Vyborg and Kexholm. Several islands in Russia also ceded to Russia (the largest are Ezel and Dago). In the south, Russia, after an unsuccessful war with the Ottoman Empire in 1711, lost Azov.
In the south, in the Caspian region, at the end of the 17th – 18th centuries. passed along the Terek, where the region of the Terek Cossacks was located. After the Persian campaign of Peter I in 1722–1723. Derbent, Baku, the Caspian territories and South coast... However, they were returned already in the 30s. XVIII century In Siberia, the movement continued to the South Siberian lands: to the Barabinsk steppe, to the upper Ob and the upper Yenisei. The annexation of these lands was facilitated by the construction here of Omsk (1716), Semipalatnaya (1718) and other fortresses, Abakan and Minusinsky forts (1707) were placed on the Yenisei. In the Far East, the development of and took place, the official inclusion of which in the empire dates back to the 1730s.
In the XVIII century. Fortified lines continue to be erected to protect individual territories from possible attacks. As in the previous period, earthen ramparts and forest cuttings were used in their creation, connecting fortresses, redoubts and cities. The innovation was the wider use of artillery and related changes in the construction of fortifications. In the first quarter of a century, on the European territory of Russia, the following were created: the fortified line Pskov - Smolensk - Bryansk (1706–1708), the purpose of which was to protect the center of the country from a possible invasion of Swedish troops from the west, and the Tsaritsyn line (1718–1723) from Tsaritsyn across the Don to Cherkassk, which covered the southern regions of Russia from the nomads of the Caspian region. Later, in 1731–1735, the Ukrainian line was erected, stretching from the Dnieper to Izyum on the Seversky Donets, which was supposed to protect the borders from the Crimean Khanate.
To the east of the actively inhabited and developed areas and the Kama region in 1731-1736. the old Zakamskaya line of the 17th century was reinforced anew, and in 1736–1742. the Samara line arose, along the Samara River to the headwaters of the Yaik. Around the same time, a line was built from Kama to Yekaterinburg and Shadrinsk. These fortified lines were created not so much for the purpose of protection as for the consolidation of Russia in new territories and to maintain order here.
The consolidation of the state borders along the Yaik and Irtysh, the advancement to the Kazakh regions and to southern Siberia led to the emergence in the 30-40s. XVIII century a whole chain of fortified lines in the border areas. In 1737, the Ishim line was drawn from Tobol through the Ishim prison to the Irtysh to Omsk. In 1739, it was continued westward to the upper reaches of the Yaik, and along the Yaik from the upper reaches to the mouth, at the same time the upper and lower Yaitsk lines were founded, which then formed a single Orenburg line. The chain of the Upper Irtysh fortresses, erected in the first quarter of the century, became the basis of the Irtysh fortified line (1745–1750). Thus, by the middle of the XVIII century. along the borders of Kazakhstan, an enormous chain of defensive lines was formed. Starting from the Caspian Sea, it ascended the Yaik, then crossed the Tobol, Ishim, went east to Omsk and along the Irtysh ascended to the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress. Many settlements arose here. Among them, it is necessary to note Orenburg, originally set up (1735) at the confluence of the Ori into the Yaik, and then transferred (1743) to the mouth of the Sakmara River. The Yaitsky town (Uralsk) and the Peter and Paul fortress (Peter and Paul) were also distinguished. A chain of fortified lines separated the possessions of Russia from the lands that were the nomadic places of the Younger and Middle Kazakh zhuzes (hordes). In 1731 the Younger Zhuz, and in 1740 the Middle Zhuz voluntarily recognized their dependence on Russia.
In the second half of the 18th century. significant territorial changes have taken place in the west of Russia. They were associated with the political decline of the Commonwealth, whose lands, as a result of three partitions, were annexed by Russia, Prussia, etc. According to the first section (1772), the right bank of the Western Dvina with Vitebsk and Polotsk, part of Livonia (Eastern) and part of the Upper Dnieper with Mogilev went to Russia. After the second partition (1793), Eastern Belarus with Minsk, Right-Bank Ukraine to the upper Dniester in the south-west and most of Volhynia were annexed. The third partition of Poland (1795) led to the incorporation of most of the lands, Western Belarus, and Western Volhynia into Russia. In the same year, the Duchy of Courland, which had previously been under Russian protectorate, became part of the Russian Empire.
Large acquisitions took place at this time in the south of the European part, in the Black Sea region. After the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. the lands between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug in their lower reaches, the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale on the Kerch Peninsula, were transferred to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey and came under the patronage of Russia. In the North Caucasus, Kabarda and North Ossetia were assigned to Russia.
In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was liquidated, which was officially recorded by the Yassy Peace Treaty, which ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1791. Russia received Tavria - the area between the Dnieper, the Black and the Azov lands between the Kuban and the mouth of the Don, the territory from the Southern Bug to the Dniester. The annexed lands of the Northern Black Sea region from the Dniester to the Kuban began to be called Novorossiya.
In connection with the advance of Russia in the Ciscaucasia, the construction of defensive lines began in this region as well. Built in 1735-1739 fortifications along the Terek were continued westward to Mozdok, and by 1763 the Mozdok fortified line was formed. This line in 1777-1780. through Stavropol, founded in 1777, it was brought to Azov. The annexation of the Eastern Azov region led to the transfer of the fortified line to the Kuban, where cordons arose from Taman to Yekaterinodar. By the end of the 18th century. a chain of fortified lines stretched from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, under the cover of which the gradual development of the Ciscaucasian region begins.
The penetration of Russia into the Caucasus began with the annexation of the coastal part of Dagestan in 1797, followed by an advance into Azerbaijan. In 1804-1806. the Gandzhin, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Derbent, Cuban and Baku khanates retreat to Russia. Officially, the annexation of Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan was formalized by the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813, concluded between Russia and Iran following the results of the war of 1804–1813. After the war of 1826-1828. between the same powers, the Eastern (Nakhichevan and Erivan Khanates) became part of Russia.
V early XIX v. there was an annexation to Russia. Even according to the Georgievsky treatise of 1783, the Kartli-Kakhetian kingdom ( Eastern Georgia) recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1801 it was finally incorporated. Following this, the Western Georgian principalities, one after the other, retreated to Russia: Megrelia (1803), Imereti (1804) and Abkhazia (1810). recognized these acquisitions under the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829. Russia received Black sea coast The Caucasus from the mouth of the Kuban to Poti.
Thus, by the end of the 20s. XIX century. almost all of Dagestan, Northern Azerbaijan, Eastern Armenia, most of Georgia, as well as the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus up to Adjara became Russian possessions. At the same time, some of the interior regions: Svaneti, Adygea, Chechnya and the western part of Dagestan remained independent. The advance into Chechnya, which began at the end of the 18th century, led to the incorporation of its northern part in the interfluve of the Terek and Sunzha into Russia. To secure this territory along the Sunzha from Terek to Vladikavkaz, the Sunzha fortified line was built (1817). Founded in the 30s. XIX century. highlanders movement North Caucasus (mountainous areas Chechnya and Dagestan), where the religious trend of Muridism was closely intertwined with the anti-colonial movement of peoples, led to the formation of a military-theocratic state here - the imamate, which was liquidated by the tsarist government only in 1859.
Subsequent changes in the territory of Russia in the Caucasus are associated with the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Adjara with Batum, Kars and Ardahan regions went to the Russian Empire.
In 1809 last war Russia ended with the annexation of the Aland Islands in the Baltic. The Grand Duchy of Finland retained some administrative-territorial isolation within the empire. After a series of wars with Napoleon, the Duchy of Warsaw became part of Russia (by the decision of the Congress of Vienna in 1815), which was transformed into the Kingdom of Poland. Since 1812, the territory of Bessarabia between the Dniester and the Prut also belonged to the Russian Empire.
Active annexation of territories Central Asia begins from the middle of the XIX century. At this time, Russia established itself in the South, as a number of Kazakh zhuzes voluntarily became part of the state. However, there were also military seizures, for the implementation of which in 1867 the Turkestan General Government was created with the center in Tashkent. So, in 1868, after the capture of Samarkand by the Russian troops, the Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate, inhabited mainly, recognized themselves as vassals of Russia. In 1876, the khan's power was abolished in Kokand. In 1873 the Khiva Khanate was conquered in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, which predetermined the annexation in the early 80s. XIX century. In 1886, the Turkestan General Government was renamed the Turkestan Territory, but the principles of governance remained the same. All civil and military power belonged to the governor-general, and military governors stood at the head of the regions (Semirechye, Syrdarya, Fergana, Samarkand and Trans-Caspian).
The borders of Russia in the Far East have also changed. The annexation of Primorye was fixed by the Aigun Treaty of 1858 and the Peking Treaty of 1860. Back in the first half of the 19th century. Russia has established itself on. In 1875, by agreement with Russia, it legally formalized its rights to own the island, recognizing the rights of the Japanese to all islands. Kuril ridge... This position remained until the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, after which the Treaty of Portsmouth southern part Sakhalin was transferred to Japan.
From the second quarter of the 18th century. Russia began to develop the north-western part North America... As a result of the Kamchatka expeditions of 1725–1730 and 1741. under the leadership of V. Bering, as well as the expedition of I. Fedorov - M. Gvozdev (1732), the northern water area, some of the Aleutian Islands and part of the coast of Alaska were explored. Since the beginning of the 1740s. the commercial development of the Aleutian Islands began, the main purpose of which was the extraction of furs (primarily the fur of the fur seal, which was found here in large numbers). A significant role in the exploration and development of new territories belongs to G.I.Shelikhov, who in 1776, together with I.L. and M.S. Golikov, organized a company for trading and fishing activities in this region. By the end of the 18th century. Several Russian settlements arose on the islands and on the mainland: the Harbor of Three Hierarchs and the Harbor of St. Paul on the Kadyak Island, the St. George Fortress on the coast of Alaska, the Mikhailovskaya Fortress (Novo-Arkhangelsk) on the Baranov Island (Sitkha), etc.
In 1799, on the initiative of a group of entrepreneurs, including the heirs of Shelikhov, with the support of the government, a joint-stock Russian-American company was created "for the purpose of fishing on the old northeastern land." It had its own board headed by a director, but was completely under the control of the government. All industries and minerals located on the northwestern coast of America from 55 ° north latitude to the strait, as well as on the Aleutian, Kuril and other islands were transferred to her for monopoly use. The company received the right to organize expeditions, borrow again open land and trade with neighboring countries. From 1804 to 1840, the Russian-American Company, with the assistance of the government, organized 25 expeditions, including IF Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky (1803-1806). The company took an active part in the research Of the Far East(expedition of G. I. Nevelskoy in 1849–1855) and the founding of Russian settlements here. Novo-Arkhangelsk became the center of Russian America.
The activity of the RAC, in particular the organization of the fur trade, was of a predatory nature and was accompanied by violence and cruelty towards the local tribes of Aleuts and Indians. Sometimes this led to resistance: in 1802 there was an uprising of the Tlingit Indian tribe, who defeated Novo-Arkhangelsk (later it was recreated in a new place). However, Russian settlers brought not only negative phenomena into the local life. The company contributed to the introduction of arable farming, truck farming and cattle breeding in a number of regions. At the beginning of the XIX century. the islands of the Alexander archipelago were developed, and then the RAC began to penetrate into California, where in 1812 the Ross fortress was founded north of modern San Francisco. However, the economic development of North American lands was associated with great difficulties and costs, primarily due to the distance from the metropolis. By the middle of the XIX century. in connection with the predatory scale of hunting, the fur trade, which was the basis of the RAC's activities, has sharply decreased. The existence of the company became unprofitable and in 1867 the tsarist government decided to sell Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the United States for $ 7 million. The Ross Colony in California had been sold even earlier to a private individual. By the time of the liquidation of Russian possessions in America, the actual Russian population of these territories was about 800 people.
At the beginning of the XX century. was the second largest state in the world, second only to British empire... The area of the territory of Russia in 1914 was more than 19 million km2, the maximum length from north to south was 4.6 thousand km, and from east to west - 10.7 thousand km.
Opinion
“The expansion had important positive consequences for Russia: an increase in natural resources; displacement of the center of the population and economic activity from north to south, into a more favorable geographic environment; improving the security of Russians living in the border areas and, thanks to this, a more rational redistribution labor resources between the areas of the old and new settlement; fruitful influence on the Russian social structure of the estate-corporate organization, a more developed culture and economy that existed in the incorporated western regions... However, the expansion also had negative consequences: it conditioned the extensive nature of nature management, contributed to the formation of an amorphous system of rural and urban settlements with weak infrastructure and, perhaps most importantly, created in the end a serious national problem. The national question had a traumatic effect on social processes in the "metropolis": significant funds were required to maintain social stability, which slowed down economic development; the tax press grew, which aroused the discontent of the Russian population; non-Russian peoples set an example of disloyalty to the authorities, which contributed to the general growth of opposition sentiments in the country and the weakening of the authority of the central government. But without territorial expansion, Russia would have remained a small and very backward European country, which it was in reality until the 16th century, and no serious achievements in the field of literature, art, science and technology could be expected from it, just as one could not expect and on high level the lives of its citizens ”.
Administrative divisions
During the period under review, the administrative-territorial system of Russia changed significantly in comparison with the previous time. Since 1708, a division of the country into provinces was introduced in order to improve the system of military, tax and police-bureaucratic management of the country's regions. Initially, 8 provinces were created: Ingermanland (from 1710 - Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kiev, Kazan, Moscow, Azov, Siberian. Such a division was not very convenient, since the province included huge territories, for example, in the Kazan - all the Middle and, and in the Siberian - the territories from the Urals (inclusive) to The Pacific, therefore, very soon new administrative-territorial units began to arise: in 1714, the Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces separated from the Kazan province, and the Revel province was formed in the Baltic States. In 1719, another reform of the regional administration was carried out. She retained the division of provinces into counties, but introduced additional intermediate territorial entities- provinces. Thus, the country was divided into provinces, provinces - into provinces, of which there could be up to 11 in one province (Petersburg), and the provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. New Administrative division almost did not affect Sloboda Ukraine, regions and Yaik. These lands were not part of either the provinces or the provinces. Slobodskaya Ukraine retained the division into regiments, and Cossack regions continued to exist on the Don and Yaik.
The process of the formation of new provinces and provinces continued in the 30s – 60s. XVIII century, until a new reform was carried out by Catherine II in 1775. The "Institution for the Governance of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire" adopted by it fixed the division of the country into 40 provinces, which were based on the former provinces. Each province consisted of 12-15 counties. In addition to the establishment of a new provincial and uyezd division, in order to strengthen the centralization of administration, several provinces or regions were united into governorships or general governorships. In 1782 g. Russian empire was divided into 19 governors general. As a rule, two provinces were under the jurisdiction of governors-general or governors. The exception was the Moscow and Riga governorships, which included one province each, Novorossiysk (four provinces), Little Russia (three). New territorial division affected and where the Kiev, Chernigov, Poltava provinces were created. By the middle of the XIX century. in Russia there were already more than 50 provinces and regions equated to them (the land of the Don Army and the land of the Black Sea army).
At the beginning of the XX century. The Russian Empire included 101 large subjects: 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. Provinces and regions were subdivided into 777 counties and districts (in Finland there are 51 parishes). Counties and districts, in turn, were divided into mills, departments and sections. Along with this, there was the Caucasian governorship, which united 11 provinces and regions and 2 districts, as well as 8 general governorships: Moscow (Moscow and Moscow governorate), Warsaw (9 Privislyansk governorates), Kiev (Kiev, Podolsk and Volyn governorates), Irkutsk ( Irkutsk, Yenisei provinces, Transbaikal and Yakutsk regions), Priamurskoe (Amur, Kamchatka, Primorskaya and Sakhalin region), Turkestan, Finland (8 provinces) and Kronstadt military governorship. Some cities of the empire had special administrative governing bodies - city governments (Moscow, Sevastopol, Kerch-Yenikale, Odessa, Nikolaev, Rostov-on-Don and Baku). In addition, the empire was subdivided into departmental districts, which consisted of a different number of provinces and regions: military (13), judicial (14), educational (15), postal and telegraph (30), districts of the Ministry of Railways (9) and customs (9 ).
