Decisions of the Potsdam Conference.
The Conference of the Heads of Government of the USSR, USA and Great Britain worked from July 17 to August 2, 1945 in Potsdam. The system of occupation of Germany was finally agreed upon; it was envisaged that the supreme power in the defeated country would be exercised by the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France - each in his own zone of occupation.
An acute struggle flared up over the western borders of Poland. Under pressure from I. V. Stalin western border Poland was established along the Oder and Neisse rivers. The city of Königsberg and the area adjacent to it were transferred to the USSR, the other part of East Prussia went to Poland.
US attempts to gain diplomatic recognition of some countries ended in failure of Eastern Europe depending on the reorganization of their governments. Thus, the dependence of these countries on the USSR was actually recognized. The three parties reaffirmed their decision to bring the major war criminals to justice.
The successful solution of important political problems for the USSR as a whole was prepared by the favorable international situation, the successes of the Soviet army, and also the interest of the allies in the USSR's entry into the war with Japan.
Formation of the United Nations (UN).
The UN was created at the final stage of World War II at a conference in San Francisco, which began work on April 25, 1945. Invitations were sent to 42 states on behalf of the four great powers: the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and China. The Soviet delegation managed to organize an invitation for representatives of Ukraine and Belarus. A total of 50 countries participated in the conference. On June 26, 1945, the Conference completed its work by adopting the UN Charter.
The UN Charter obliged the members of the organization to resolve disputes among themselves only by peaceful means, to refrain in international relations from the use of force or threats to use force. The charter also proclaimed the equality of all people, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, the need to comply with all international treaties and obligations.
The main task of the UN was to promote the maintenance of world peace and international security.
It was established that sessions of the UN General Assembly would be held annually with the participation of delegates from all UN member countries. In matters of maintaining world peace, the main role was assigned to the UN Security Council, consisting of fourteen members. Five of them were considered permanent (USSR, USA, Great Britain, France, China), the rest were subject to re-election every two years. The most important condition was the established principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the UN Security Council. This principle protected the UN from turning it into an instrument of diktat in relation to any country or group of countries.
Beginning of the Cold War.
Already by the end of the war, the contradictions between the USSR, on the one hand, and the USA and Great Britain, on the other, were sharply outlined. The main issue was the question of the post-war structure of the world and the spheres of influence in it of both sides. The tangible superiority of the West in economic power and the monopoly on nuclear weapons allowed him to hope for the possibility of a decisive change in the balance of power in his favor. Back in the spring of 1945, a plan of military operations against the USSR was developed (Operation Unthinkable): W. Churchill planned to start the Third World War on July 1, 1945 with a joint attack by the Anglo-Americans and formations German soldiers against Soviet troops in Germany. Only by the summer of 1945, due to the obvious military superiority of the Red Army, this plan was abandoned.
Both sides soon shifted to a policy of brinkmanship. In 1947, the American journalist W. Lippman called this policy the "cold war." A turning point in relations between the USSR and Western world was the speech of the former Prime Minister of Great Britain W. Churchill at the Military College of Fulton (USA) in March
Mr. Churchill called on "the world that speaks English" to unite and show the "Russians strength." US President Harry Truman supported Churchill's ideas. These threats aroused the anxiety of I. V. Stalin, who called the speech a "dangerous act." The USSR actively increased its influence not only in the countries of Europe occupied by the Soviet Army, but also in Asia.
The beginning of the formation of a bipolar (bipolar) world.
In 1947, relations between the USSR and the USA continued to deteriorate. Europe lay in ruins. Under these conditions, the influence of the ideas of communism and the prestige of the USSR grew. To undermine such sentiments, the United States adopted a program of assistance to Europe - the Marshall Plan (named after US Secretary of State J. Marshall). The condition for providing assistance was its use under the control of the United States. This was unacceptable for the USSR. Under his pressure, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Finland refused to participate in the Marshall Plan.
In order to strengthen Soviet influence in the fall of 1947, the Information Bureau of the Communist Parties (Cominform) was created - a kind of Comintern dissolved in 1943. Soon, Stalin decided to abandon the course he had originally adopted for the transition of the Eastern European countries to socialism by parliamentary methods. Communist governments in 1947-1948. came to power in Poland, Romania, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Prior to this, the Communists gained power in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania. In 1949, the victory of the communists ended Civil War in China. The Communists came to power in North Vietnam and North Korea. This is how the socialist camp was formed.
Despite the colossal internal difficulties, the USSR provided all these countries with enormous material assistance, which allowed them by the beginning of the 50s. basically overcome the post-war devastation. In 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was created to coordinate development issues. At the same time, in the socialist countries (countries of people's democracy), repressions were carried out against a number of figures, including the leaders of the communist parties, who were suspected of trying to take their states out of the control of the USSR. Only the ruler of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito, managed to defend his right to an independent policy, which caused the rupture of relations between the USSR and Yugoslavia in 1948.
The Marshall Plan and the Soviet response to it led to a further division of the world into two opposing parts: East and West (a bipolar world).
P first international crises.
In 1948, the United States decided to consolidate the division of Germany by creating a separate West German state. The economic split of Germany was determined by the introduction of the West German mark. Prior to this, Stalin sought to implement the decisions of the Yalta Conference on a united democratic Germany, hoping to make it a neutral buffer between West and East. Now the Soviet Union had to take a course to strengthen its positions in East Germany. Soviet troops blocked the communication routes linking Berlin with the western occupation zone. In response to this, an “air bridge” was created, through which it was supplied for almost a year Western part Berlin (a zone allocated for the occupying Allied forces).
The Berlin crisis brought the world to the brink of war and led to the final division of Germany. On May 8, 1949, the Parliamentary Council under the leadership of Konrad Adenauer adopted the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). On September 20, 1949, Adenauer presented the first composition of the new state to the Parliament. On October 7, 1949, the pro-Soviet German Democratic Republic (GDR) was formed.
Even earlier, in April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) was signed, which formalized the military-political alliance of Western countries under the leadership of the United States. It includes 12 states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, Iceland and Canada.
Korean War.
After the defeat of Japan, its former colony of Korea was divided along the 38th parallel into the Soviet and American zones of occupation. When the Soviet and American troops were withdrawn, both the northern government of communist Kim Il Sung and the southern government of Syngman Rhee sought to extend their power to all of Korea.
On June 25, 1950, the troops of North Korea (DPRK) began to successfully move south. In September 1950, the troops of fifteen countries, led by the United States under the UN flag, landed troops in the rear of the DPRK army. During fierce fighting, the Americans reached the Korean-Chinese border. Rescuing the DPRK, "volunteers" from China acted on its side, and Soviet aviation also operated successfully (Soviet fighters shot down 1097 enemy aircraft, the Americans destroyed 335 Soviet aircraft).
In 1951, the front line was established in the area of the same 38th parallel. In 1953 an armistice was signed. The Korean War gave impetus to a new stage in the arms race.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
What decisions did the Potsdam Conference make?
When was the UN created? What were her goals? What items were included in the UN Charter?
What is a "cold war"? What were her reasons?
What is a bipolar world? How did he develop?
What were the causes and consequences of the Berlin Crisis?
Why did the Korean War start? What were its results?
Was the Cold War inevitable? Justify your answer.
COMMITTEE OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE KURSK REGION
regional budgetary professional educational institution
"Kursk State Polytechnic College"
(OBPOU "KGPK")
methodicallesson development
« Beginning of the Cold War»
Subject "History"
mid-level specialist training program
by specialty08.02.01
Construction and operation of buildings and structures
OBPOU "KGPK"
Kursk
2016.
EXPLANATORY NOTE
Methodical development lessonstories« Post-war order of the world.Beginning of the Cold War» by specialty08.02.01 Construction and operation of buildings and structures (basic training)involves the continuation of work on the constructiona learning model that is distinguished by a combination of pedagogical management with the initiative and activity of the student. This model provides all the necessary conditions for the further social adaptation of students, plays an important role in the formation of general and personal competencies of specialists and meets the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standards of secondary vocational education.
students gain the skills to participate in discussions, dialogue communication with others, which leads to mutual understanding, interaction, to the joint solution of common, but significant tasks for each participant . Joint activities contribute to the development of critical thinking, the ability to speak out, defend one's opinion, solve complex problems based on an analysis of the circumstances and relevant information, weigh alternative opinions, make informed decisions. Interactive technology contributes not only to improving the quality of knowledge, but also to increasing efficiency, the student feels his success, his intellectual independence, which makes the learning process itself productive.
Methodological goal:the introduction of interactive technologies as a way of intellectual development of the individual and the formation of critical thinking.
Lesson type:learning new material.
Class type:dialogue lesson .
Teaching technologies:interactive technologies, business game.
Form of organization learning activities : work in small groups, collective discussion, independent work.
Teaching methods and techniques:
- work with historical sources;
- conversation with discussion elements.
Objectives of the lesson.
Educational:
assimilation by students of the essence of the concept of "cold war",causes of the Cold War, its impact on international relations and
implications for the development of world politics;
Developing:
Development of mental skills of students;
Development of skills to work with historical sources;
Development of skills to formulate and argue your point of view;
Educational:
education of rejection of intolerance, hostility, distrust, ideological confrontation, aggressiveness.
Formed competencies and value orientations
OK 3. Make decisions in standard and non-standard situations and be responsible for them
OK 4. Search and use the information necessary for the effective implementation of professional tasks, professional and personal development
OK 6. Work in a team and in a team, communicate effectively with colleagues, management, consumers
OK 7. Take responsibility for the work of team members (subordinates), for the result of completing tasks
1. Personally significant and communicative:
- positive attitude, orientation to success;
- the ability to take responsibility for a decision.
2. Educational and cognitive competencies:
- skills and abilities to solve situational problems;
- skills and abilities to highlight key provisions, express reasoned judgments and conclusions;
- the ability to analyze the results obtained; formulate conclusions.
3. Communicative and speech competencies:
- skills and abilities to prepare oral reports based on the studied sources of information;
- skills and abilities of monologue ideological speech;
- skills and abilities to use historical terms in speech.
Ensuring the lesson:
Wall map "States of the world",
Multimedia projector; PC,
multimedia presentation« Post-war order of the world.Beginning of the Cold War»;
Handout.
Main literature:
Artemov V . V ., Lubchenkov Yu . H . History for professions and specialties of technical, natural science, socio-economic profiles: 2 hours: textbook for students. medium institutions. prof. education. - M., 2015.
DURING THE CLASSES.
1. Theme setting. Goal setting. (5 minutes.)
Creating motivation: students based on the materials of the periodical press (newspapers "Rossiyskaya Gazeta", "Arguments and Facts", "Kurskaya Pravda") present modern international relations and ask questions: Why are there so many issues today on which Russia and the United States cannot come to a consensus ? Who is to blame for the confrontation between the great powers? Where, what will the confrontation between Russia and the United States lead to?
Teacher:
Thanks, have a seat. Indeed, the current international situation makes us think about what is happening, why relations between states are developing this way, and what will happen next. The study of this topic is especially relevant. Today we will also talk about international relations, about relations between the two powers. We need to start from the beginning, so let's go back to the mid-40s of the 20th century. The topic of our lesson: “The post-war structure of the world. Beginning of the Cold War. Open notebooks, write down the topic of the lesson.
How many questions have now been raised, and we will try to find answers to these questions in the lesson. Determine the purpose of our lesson.
Suggested answers:
Goals of our lesson:
Consider the post-war structure of the world; find out what the "cold war" is, what are its causes, who is to blame for the outbreak of the "cold war" and what are its consequences.
Teacher:
I want to remind you ancient wisdom: Find the beginning of everything, and you will understand a lot, so we will definitely talk about the lessons of the Cold War.
Pay attention to the list of statements of famous people of the world (Appendix No. 1). I suggest that you read them carefully and choose an epigraph to our lesson in accordance with the purpose, justifying your choice.
Students offer options for the epigraph, arguing their choice. Words are chosen as an epigraph E. Yevtushenko “Our honeymoon with the allies quickly ended. The war united us, but the victory divided us”, because. they characterize the post-war state of the world.
2. Learning new material (30 min.)
Teacher:
So, we have chosen an epigraph, determined the goals of our lesson and begin to work according to the following plan.
1. "Cold War": concept, causes, signs.
2. "Bipolar World".
3. Consequences of the Cold War. local conflicts.
Look at the photo (Appendix No. 2). Who is pictured here?
Suggested answers:
The heads of government of the USSR, USA and Great Britain - J. Stalin, G. Truman, W. Churchill.
What lesson did humanity learn from World War II?
Suggested answers:
The main lesson that was learned as a result of the war is that any war requires the mobilization of human and material resources and brings suffering to people. Therefore, one should by all means refrain from solving problems with the help of military force.
Teacher:
September 2, 1945 ended the second world war, the most difficult and bloody. After it, the very idea of a new war seemed blasphemous. More than ever, much has been done to prevent it from happening again: the states that have taken the path of gross violation of the norms have been defeated international law and outright aggression. This meant the defeat of the policy of brute force, attempts to build a "new order" on the principles of militant nationalism and racism.
The main lesson that humanity has learned - to keep the peace - is reflected in the creation of the UN, an international organization to maintain peace and security on the planet.
The objective development of the situation led to the Cold War.
The Cold War is not just a term, not just a metaphor, it is a whole era in the life of mankind, filled with facts, events, and persons. Today I propose to find out how the image of this era was created, to supplement its portrait with those touches, without which it would not be expressive enough. To do this, you will need to study historical sources.
Today we have representatives of the United States, the USSR and outside observers who will have to find out what the "cold war" is, what its causes are, who is to blame for the outbreak of the "cold war" and what are its consequences.
On the desk, everyone has a task with which you will work in a microgroup. Working time - 5 min.
The teacher asks the representatives of the USA and the USSR to stand up, asks them questions about the documents, the students answer the questions.
Document "From W. Churchill's speech on March 5, 1946 in the city of Fulton (USA)"(Annex 3)
Why is Churchill's speech, according to historians, considered a harbinger of the Cold War?
Suggested answers:
W. Churchill accused the USSR of expansion, of creating an "Iron Curtain" that separated the West from the countries of Soviet influence. W. Churchill spoke of the need to create a "strength ring" around the countries under the control of the USSR in order to force him to abandon the building of socialism and the spread of socialist ideas.
- Document " The reaction of the leadership of the USSRto Churchill's speech (Appendix 4, on 2 sheets)
What was the reaction of the Soviet leadership toW. Churchill's speech? Determine the attitude of I. V. Stalin to the speech of W. Churchill.
Suggested answers:
I. V. Stalin stated that « Mr. Churchill is now in the position of an instigator of war,” put him on a par with Hitler and assessed the speech as a call from the West to war with the USSR.
Historical facts (Appendix 5)
What goals did the USSR pursue in the international arena after the end of World War II? Give examples proving the strengthening of the positions of the USSR in the post-war world.
Suggested answers:
JV Stalin sought to strengthen the influence of the USSR in all regions of the world. In 1946-1948. in the states of Eastern Europe and Asia, liberated by the Soviet army or with its participation, communist governments came to power, taking a course towards building socialism along the Soviet model. A number of socialist countries allied to the USSR emerged.
Documentation (Appendix 6, on 2 sheets)
Suggested answers:
The United States did not want to put up with the changes that had taken place in the international arena. Therefore, they began to pursue a power policy in relation to the USSR. One of the means of deterrence of the USSR was considered atomic weapons, the monopoly on the possession of which was used by the United States. The goals of the US plans in relation to the USSR were aggressive in nature.
Document " Truman Doctrine. Marshall Plan"(Annex 7)
What is the main idea behind Truman's speech? What role did it play in the development of the Cold War? What is the purpose of the Marshall Plan?
Suggested answers:
In doctrine Truman talked about "containment" of the USSR, putting continuous pressure on it, about the possibility of US intervention in the internal affairs of other countries. The doctrine marked the beginning of the creation of a network of US military bases in foreign territories. At the same time, US Secretary of State Marshall put forward a program of economic assistance to post-war Europe. In fact, it became a continuation of the Truman Doctrine.
- Marshall Plan Document.(Appendix 8, on 2 sheets)
How did the Soviet leadership react to the Marshall Plan? Why? Try to explain why I.V. Stalin did not accept the proposal of US Secretary of State D. Marshall? Why did Stalin demand that the countries of Eastern Europe refuse to participate in the American project?
Suggested answers:
I.V. Stalin and his entourage perceived« Marshall Plan" as an attempt to put the economic and political life of the countries that adopted it under US control. Fearing undermining the influence of the USSR in the states of Eastern Europe, the leadership Soviet Union demanded that they refuse to participate in the American project.
Teacher:
I want to ask the representatives of the USSR and the USA, standing against each other, what were your feelings? What did you experience? How do outside observers assess what happened?
Suggested answers:
A feeling of struggle, confrontation, conflict, on the other hand - a desire to get closer, to meet each other halfway.
Teacher:
Now let's draw conclusions on the issues under discussion.
What is the Cold War? What were the causes of the Cold War? Who do you think was the culprit? Could it have been avoided"cold war"?
Suggested answers:
"Cold War"- the state of military-political confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as between their allies after the Second World War.
Causes of the Cold War: With the advent of nuclear weapons in the United States, military power began to play an increasing role in international relations. Politicians in both the Soviet Union and the United States were interested in creating an image of the enemy. In conditions when the fate of the countries liberated from fascism remained uncertain, between The USSR and the USA started a confrontation for the right to determine the ways of their further development.
The main cause of the Cold War was the global, geopolitical, irreconcilable contradictions between the world socio-political systems - capitalism and socialism, burdened by the ideology and subjective qualities of the leaders of the great powers.
The leaders of both the Soviet Union and the United States showed unconstructiveness, unwillingness to compromise, to reckon with each other's interests.
Teacher:
Not only the superpowers were involved in the Cold War, a bipolar world is being formed. Your microgroups needed to determine the consequences"cold war". (Appendix 9, on 3 sheets,)
What is a "bipolar world"? How did it develop? What are the results of the emergence of two military bloc systems? With the help of the map, reveal the meaning of the change in the geopolitical situation in Europe by the end of 1949. What were the causes and consequences of the Berlin Crisis?
Suggested answers:
The bipolar world is a world divided into two opposing parts: East and West. RivalryThe USSR and the USA led to an arms race, a struggle for control over key areas of the world, an increase in the number of local conflicts and the creation of a system of military alliances.
To regulate economic relations in Eastern Europe in January 1949. the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was created (work with the map). The CMEA became the first international organization of the socialist countries. For their part, the countries of the West on April 4, 1949. formed the military-political organization of the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) (work with the map). response to Germany's accession to NATO in 1955. was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, the military-political union of the USSR with its friendly countries of Eastern Europe (work with the map). The formation of a system of alliances in Europe was accelerated by the conflict between the USSR and the USA, which put these countries on the brink of a military clash. The conflict was connected with the unresolved German question (work with the map).
The Western powers did not want to put up with the Soviet influence established in the east of Germany. The Berlin Crisis made the division of Germany inevitable.
The creation of two military bloc systems led to a significant aggravation of the international situation and affected political development many countries.
Teacher:
Asian countries were also involved in the confrontation.
Document "Korean War" (Appendix 10, on 3 sheets)
Suggested answers:
The Korean Civil War escalated into an international one. Soviet and American pilots had to fight each other. The military clash in Korea between the two military-bloc systems brought the countries to the brink of war.
Teacher:
Let's sum up our dialogue. (5 min.)
Let us return to the questions formulated at the beginning of the lesson. Have we received answers to them?
What lessons can be learned from the military confrontation between the USSR and the West in 1945-1953? G.
Which of these lessons are relevant in today's world?
Why is the cold war dangerous?
Suggested answers:
Both countries claimed a leading role in the world. They used such means as an economic blockade, political propaganda, an arms race, and local conflicts to weaken each other. Local conflicts have become an invariable feature of the post-war years. In many regions of the world, the Cold War served as the detonator of bloody "hot conflicts".
Teacher:
Imagine that you are present at a meeting of heads of state, what words, wishes, questions would you address to the leaders of Russia and the United States.
Students express their wishes.
Suggested answers:
Give up confrontation.
Avoid sanctions.
Take care of the world.
Let's shake hands and direct our efforts towards the use of the atom for peaceful purposes.
Teacher:
Yes, indeed, only cooperation, interaction, the desire to compromise will bring states together and help solve existing problems. Everyone must unite in order to prevent a "cold war" and its escalation into a "hot" one.
The future is a consequence of the past and the present, but the present is the current moment, the only time in which something can be done that will add something to any past that will bring to life a desired future. If we don’t do anything in the present, then we run the risk of finding ourselves in the future that is approaching “by itself” - automatically or in fulfillment of someone else’s will alien to us.
3. Conclusion. (5 min.)
Teacher:
Our lesson is coming to an end, I suggest you continue the phrase: “After our lesson, I can……”
Suggested answers:
Search for the necessary information in historical sources;
Formulate concepts, highlight essential features;
Analyze historical events;
Express judgments about cause-and-effect relationships of historical facts;
Determine your attitude and explain the assessment of the most significant personalities and events in history;
- explain the meaning and significance of the studied historical events and phenomena;
Work in a group;
Treat your opponent with respect.
Homework: Write an essay, the theme of which will be the statement of T. Carlyle "Any war is a misunderstanding."
Giving and commenting on ratings.
Thanks, the lesson is over. en
Application No. 1.
nOur honeymoon with the allies quickly ended. The war united us, but the victory divided us.
E. Evtushenko.
nThe results of our labor do not leave humanity
other choice than to create a united world, a world based on law and humanism.
R. Oppenheimer
nWhat type of weapons will be carried IIIWorld War? I do not know, but the only weapon IVthere will be a stone axe.
A. Einstein
nThe past must be known not because it has passed, but because, leaving, it was not able to "remove its consequences."
IN. Klyuchevsky
nWe go to the future, looking back at the past.
P. Valeria
Application №3
Question to the document: Why is Churchill's speech, according to historians, considered a harbinger of the Cold War?
From the speech of W. Churchill on March 5, 1946 in the city of Fulton (USA)
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an "iron curtain" descended on the continent. Behind this line are stored all the treasures of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, Sofia - all these famous cities and the population in their areas are in the Soviet sphere and all are subject in one form or another not only to Soviet influence, but also to a large extent Moscow's everlasting control... Only Athens, with its immortal glory, is free to decide its future in elections under the supervision of the British, Americans and French. The Polish government, under the control of the Russians, was encouraged to make huge and unjust encroachments on Germany ...
The communist parties, which were very insignificant in all the eastern states of Europe, have attained an exceptional strength, far outnumbering them, and are striving to establish totalitarian control everywhere. Police governments predominate almost everywhere, and to this day... there is no true democracy in them.
Turkey and Persia are deeply alarmed and concerned about the demands that the Moscow government makes of them. The Russians made an attempt in Berlin to create a communist party in their zone of occupation of Germany (...) If the Soviet government now tries to separately create a pro-communist Germany in its zone, this will cause serious new difficulties in the British and American zones and divide the defeated Germans between the Soviets and the Western democracies.
With the exception of the British Commonwealth of Nations and the USA, where communism is in its infancy, the communist parties, or fifth columns, are a growing threat and danger to Christian civilization... The Russians most admire strength, and there is nothing to they would have less respect than military weakness. For this reason, our old doctrine of the balance of power is untenable. We cannot afford to rely on a slight advantage in strength, thus creating a temptation to test our strength ...
If the population of the English-speaking Commonwealth of Nations is added to the United States, and considering what such cooperation at sea, in the air in the field of science and industry will mean, then there will be no precarious and dangerous balance of power. I drive away the thought that a new war is inevitable, or, moreover, that a new war is imminent... I do not believe that Soviet Russia wants war. She wants the fruits of war and the unlimited expansion of her power and her doctrines. But what we have to consider here today is a system to avert the threat of war, to provide conditions for the development of freedom and democracy as quickly as possible in all countries...”.
Application No. 4.
Questions to the document: What was the reaction of the Soviet leadership to W. Churchill's speech? Determine the attitude of I. V. Stalin to the speech of W. Churchill?
The reaction of the leadership of the USSR to Churchill's speech:
“Yesterday in America, Comrade Churchill delivered a provocative speech. You will read more about it in Pravda. This gentleman urges the imperialist brothers not to stand on ceremony with us. Comrade Churchill is annoyed by the victory of communist ideology in the countries of Eastern Europe. He would like to return the pre-war peace. "Let's thank Comrade Churchill, the old warmonger. It is reported that the leaders of the United States and Britain, Truman and Attlee, have disowned Churchill's appeals. It's too late, gentlemen. We, too, could pretend that nothing happened, but this is not in our interests. We will to interpret Comrade Churchill's speech as a direct call to war with the USSR and the camp of socialism. A very good and timely speech for us... Speaking between us, after the war, wrong moods appeared in our society. Some members of the intelligentsia allow themselves to openly admire western way life, criminally forgetting that there is a class struggle going on in the world. Thank you, Comrade Churchill, for bringing us back to reality. And reminded of our main task. Now about our backlog, which this bastard mentioned ... It's not, and it's true! We all remember how Churchill and the imperialists did not open a second front for a long time, wanting to bleed us as much as possible. But the opposite happened. Bleeding, losing hundreds of thousands in battles, we have created the most powerful army in the world... The imperialist gentlemen now have the only advantage left - the atomic bomb. This is a very serious advantage. Our task is to eliminate it as soon as possible - this time. And two: from today we resume our fight. We must stop the mood of complacency and ideological weakness."
I.V. Stalin, in an interview with a correspondent for the newspaper Pravda, commented on Churchill's Fulton speech as follows:
“... In essence, Mr. Churchill is now in the position of an instigator of war. And Mr. Churchill is not alone here - he has friends not only in England, but also in the United States of America ... Hitler began the work of unleashing the war by proclaiming the racial theory, declaring that only people who speak German represent a complete nation. Mr. Churchill begins the business of unleashing war also with racial theory, arguing that only the nations that speak English language, are full-fledged nations, called upon to decide the destinies of the whole world ... In fact, Mr. Churchill and his friends in England and the USA are presenting to nations that do not speak English, something like an ultimatum: recognize our domination voluntarily, and then everything will be in otherwise, war is inevitable... There is no doubt that Mr. Churchill's directive is a directive for war, a call for war with the USSR. I do not know whether Mr. Churchill and his friends will be able to organize a new campaign against "Eastern Europe" after the Second World War. But if they succeed - which is unlikely, because millions of "common people" stand guard over the cause of peace - then it can be said with certainty that they will be beaten.
Application No. 5.
Questions to the document: What goals did the USSR pursue in the international arena after the end of World War II? Give examples proving the strengthening of the positions of the USSR in the post-war world.
Facts.
An acute conflict occurred over the timing of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Northern Iran, where they entered back in 1941. by agreement with England. In December 1945 in Iranian Azerbaijan and Kurdistan (Northern Iran), local governments were formed. They declared autonomy. Western countries considered this a violation of the obligations assumed by the allies in Tehran in 1943. about respect territorial integrity countries, demanded that the USSR immediately withdraw troops from the territory of Iran. The United States issued the first threat in the history of Soviet-American relations to use nuclear weapons in the event of a military solution to the conflict. Such a painful reaction was explained by fears that the USSR would put Iran's oil wealth under control. After the withdrawal of Soviet troops, the Iranian government, on the advice of the British, not only liquidated the autonomies, but also terminated the lease agreement with the Soviet Union for a number of oil fields for a period of 50 years.
In 1945-1946. in most Eastern European countries, coalition governments were in power. Along with the communists, other political forces were also represented in them.
In 1945, the communist regime was established in Yugoslavia and North Vietnam.
In 1946 - in Albania, Bulgaria.
1947 - Communists won elections in Poland and Hungary.
December 1947 - The Romanian king Mihai, under pressure from the Soviet military command, abdicated and handed over power to the communists.
1948 - The communist regime was established in Czechoslovakia, the pro-Soviet regime was established in North Korea.
1949 The communists came to power in China.
There was a complete subordination of the leaders of the communist regimes to Stalin.
Appendix No. 6.
Document questions: Briefly formulate the main goal of the United States in relation to the USSR after the Second World War? Can the struggle of the United States against the hated, unjust Soviet regime be regarded as just actions that reflect the interests of the world community? What are the goals of the US plans for the USSR? Whether the United States is doing similar actions against other states at the present time.
Excerpts from Directive of the US National Security Council: 20/1 of 08/18/1948 "Our goals in relation to Russia" and SNB-68 of 09/30/1950
“Our main goals with regard to Russia, in essence, come down to just two:
a) Reduce the power and influence of Moscow to the extent that it does not pose a threat to the peace and stability of international relations;
b) To carry out fundamental changes in the theory and practice of foreign policy, which the government in power in Russia adheres to.
... It is primarily about making and keeping the Soviet Union weak politically, militarily and psychologically in comparison with external forces beyond its control.
… In other words, we must create automatic guarantees to ensure that even a non-communist and nominally friendly regime:
a) did not have great military power;
b) economically heavily dependent on the outside world;
c) did not have serious power over the main national minorities;
d) did not install anything resembling an iron curtain.
In the event that such a regime expresses hostility towards the Communists and friendship towards us, we must take care that these conditions are not imposed in an insulting or humiliating manner. But we are obliged not to wash, but to impose them on horseback to protect our interests.
From Directive SNB-68 of 09/30/1950
“…sow the seeds of destruction within Soviet system in order to force the Kremlin to at least change its policy... But without superior available and easily mobilized military power, the policy of "containment", which is essentially a policy of calculated and gradual coercion, is nothing more than a bluff.
... We need to wage open psychological warfare in order to cause massive betrayal of the Soviets and destroy other plans of the Kremlin ...
... In addition to asserting our values, our policies and actions must be such as to bring about fundamental changes in the nature of the Soviet system, the disruption of the Kremlin's plans is the first and important step towards these changes.
On September 4, 1945, a document was drawn up in the United States (Memorandum of the Joint Intelligence Committee No. 329), which stated: “Select approximately 20 of the most important targets suitable for strategic atomic bombing in the USSR and in the territory controlled by it.”
“Russians,” wrote US President G. Truman on January 5, 1946, to Secretary of State J. Byrnes, need to show an iron fist and speak with strong language. I think we should not make any compromises with them now.”
Chairman of the Senate Atomic Energy Commission McMahon openly stated: “War with the Russians is inevitable. We need to wipe them off the face of the earth and quickly.”
"Assessment of plans for a strategic offensive in the air against the USSR, prepared by the commander in chief US Air Force and presented to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, December 21, 1948.
“The war will begin before April 1, 1949. atomic bombs will be applied on such a scale as is possible and desirable ... it is very important to outline the areas where the most significant Soviet industrial centers... Maps with designated targets and flight routes for operations, affecting the first 70 cities, will be ready by February 1, 1949. ”
From an article by West German historian B. Greiner
There was a group in Washington that was completely indifferent to what the USSR or Stalin thought and did. These are the military planners. Since the summer of 1945 at the latest, they knew their enemy well and mass-produced war plans. In 1948-1949, for example, it was considered possible to end the Soviet Union by destroying its 70 cities and industrial centers with atomic bombs. All the details were spelled out with manic precision: 1947 objects would be attacked, 2.7 million people were planned to be killed and 4 million wounded within 30 days. In March 1954, the strategic air force command saw itself at the peak of its power. If necessary, it undertook to bring down 750 bombs from all over the world on the USSR and within two (!) Hours turn it into "smoking radioactive ruins." Note that under this scenario, the United States would not have suffered in any way.
Annex No. 7.
Questions to documents: What is the main idea of Truman's speech? What role did it play in the development of the Cold War? What is the purpose of the Marshall Plan?
Truman Doctrine.
Western leaders feared that the USSR would continue to existexpand its “sphere of interest” to include all newcountries where the positions of the communists will be strengthened. VMarch1947the US Congress, at the request of G. Truman, approved the allocationmoney from Greece and Turkey and sending military personnel there toprotectionthese countries from "communist aggression". The message of the President of the United States to Congress was calledTruman Doctrine.The task was to "contain" the USSR and its allies from the "seizure" of new territories.Subsequently, the doctrine of rejection was proclaimed, i.e. liberation from the influence of the USSR of the countries that fell under its control.This policy is associated withsafeguarding the security and vital interests of the United States itself.
Marshall plan.
An integral part of the new US foreign policy was the program for the economic revival of war-torn Europe. It was developed by the new US Secretary of State Marshall. The plan named after him was approved at an international conference in Paris (12.7-22.9.1947). The USSR did not participate in the conference, as it regarded this plan as aimed at the economic enslavement of Europe by America and put pressure on the Eastern European countries so that they refused to participate in the implementation of the Marshall Plan. In total, the Marshall Plan was signed by 16 Western countries.
Marshall, in his speech at Harvard University, stated: "Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, despair and chaos." He said that European states wishing to use his plan should themselves take the initiative and work out the details of this plan, calculating the necessary funds, provide data on the state of their economy, needs, plans for the use of incoming funds.
The Marshall Plan began to be implemented in April 1948, when the US Congress passed the "economic cooperation law", which provided for a 4-year program of economic assistance to Europe. The total amount of appropriations under the Marshall Plan (from April 1948 to December 1951) amounted to about 12.4 billion dollars, with the main share falling on England (2.8 billion), France (2.5 billion), Spain (1.3 billion), West Germany (1.3 billion), Holland (1 billion). At the same time, the Americans, as a precondition for providing assistance, demanded the removal of the Communists from the governments of the countries that signed the treaty. By 1948, no government Western Europe there were no communists.
Annex No. 8.
Questions to the document: How did the Soviet leadership react to the Marshall Plan? Why? Try to explain why I.V. Stalin did not accept the proposal of US Secretary of State D. Marshall? Why did Stalin demand that the countries of Eastern Europe refuse to participate in the American project?
Marshall plan.
The Marshall Plan in Moscow was initially met with interest. Hopes for American loans for the reconstruction of the country have not yet disappeared. Therefore, the Soviet leadership hesitated. According to the memoirs of one of the leaders of the MGB P. Sudoplatov, initially the Soviet leadership seriously considered the participation of the USSR in the Marshall Plan. V. Molotov’s assistant Vetrov told P. Sudoplatov before leaving for Paris to participate in negotiations on the future of Europe that “our policy is based on cooperation with the Western allies in the implementation of the“ Marshall Plan ”, referring primarily to the revival of war-ravaged industry in Ukraine, in Belarus and in Leningrad.
The Soviet Union was invited to a meeting of Foreign Ministers in Paris on the problems of American assistance, to which the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on June 21, 1947 gave a positive answer. This is how Foreign Minister V. M. Molotov recalls this time: “At first I agreed, by the way, I made a proposal to the Central Committee: we must participate. And then he came to his senses and sent a second note on the same day: let's refuse. ...But there (in Paris) such a gang gathered that one could not count on a conscientious attitude ... There was a lot of vagueness. But if they believe that it was our mistake to abandon the Marshall Plan, then we did the right thing ... And at first we at the Foreign Ministry wanted to invite all socialist countries to participate, but quickly realized that this was wrong. They pulled us into their company, but a subordinate company. We would have depended on them, but nothing would have worked out properly, but we would have depended unconditionally.”
An even more negative assessment sounds in the memorandum of Academician E. Varga, written on the instructions of V. Molotov. The academician believed that the economic interests of the US leadership were at the heart of the Marshall Plan: economic situation USA. The Marshall Plan was to be, first and foremost, a weapon to mitigate the next economic crisis, the approach of which no one in the United States denies. The American financial oligarchy and American politics are seeking funds to mitigate the coming economic crisis. Such a means is the sale of surplus (under capitalist conditions) goods abroad. Based on an assessment of the economic situation in the United States, E. Varga concludes: “The meaning of the Marshall plan against this background is as follows. If it is in the interests of the United States itself to send many billions of dollars worth of American goods abroad on credit to unreliable debtors, then we must try to extract the maximum political benefits from this. Such benefits, according to Academician E. Varga, are "demonstration of the superiority of the United States", "the role of" the saviors of "the whole of Europe".
JV Stalin and his entourage perceived the Marshall Plan as an attempt to put the economic and political life of the countries that adopted it under US control. JV Stalin ordered the countries of "people's democracy" in Eastern Europe to abandon the "Marshall Plan". V. M. Molotov announced that US assistance "will inevitably lead to the intervention of some states in the affairs of others", "will split Europe into two groups of countries." V. Stalin forbade the countries of "international democracy" to join the International Monetary Fund.
In 1947, the communists of the Eastern European countries, at the direction of the Information Bureau of the Communist Parties, sharply condemned the "Marshall Plan" and put forward the idea of accelerated development of their countries based on their own forces with the support of the USSR.
Appendix No. 9.
Questions to documents: What is a “bipolar world”? How did it develop? What are the results of the emergence of two military bloc systems? With the help of the map, reveal the meaning of the change in the geopolitical situation in Europe by the end of 1949. What were the causes and consequences of the Berlin Crisis?
On the establishment of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
In January of this year, an economic meeting of representatives of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia was held in Moscow...
In order to implement broader economic cooperation between the countries of people's democracy and the USSR, the meeting recognized the need to create a Council for Mutual Economic Assistance from representatives of the countries participating in the meeting on the basis of equal representation with the task of exchanging economic experience, providing technical assistance to each other, and providing mutual assistance in raw materials, food, machinery, and equipment. etc.
The meeting recognized that the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance is an open organization, which can be joined by other European countries that share the principles of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and wish to participate in broad economic cooperation with the above countries.<...>
Application No. 10.
Document questions:What are local conflicts? Why were they dangerous to international security? Why did the Korean War start? What were the results of the Korean War? What conclusions should the parties to the conflict draw from the outcome of the Korean War?
Korean War
Local conflicts are military clashes in a limited area with the direct or indirect participation of the Soviet Union and the United States. During the Cold War, they became the main threat to international security.
The largest conflict on the Asian continent occurredwent to Korea. AfterThe war between the USSR and the USA divided the Japanese colony of Korea.In the southern part of this countrythis country occupied during the war With Japan by the US troops, in May 1948 elections were held in parla ment. The Republic of Korea was proclaimed with its capital in Seoul.
In the northern part of Korea, liberated by Soviet troops, in August 1948 aroseKorean Folk Democratic Republic(DPRK)with its capital in Pyongyang. Both the North Korean government and the South Korean government believed that they were the only legitimate representative of the entire Korean people.
North Korea received significant assistance from the USSR and China to strengthening their defenses. Particularly in the North More than 4 thousand foreign military specialists worked in Korea. Leader of the DPRKKim Il Sung (1912-1994)was convinced that the government of the South, with the help of the United States, was preparing to seize the entire Korea.
N.S. Khrushchev recalled:"Kim Il Sung, talkingcoStalinsetquestion what you wantwouldprobeSouthKorea with a bayonetandsaid that there at the firstpush from North Korea there will be an internal explosionpeople's power will be established, the same as in the NorthernKorea. Stalin did not oppose this. After all, thisimponito the Stalinist point of view, his convictions,topicsmore than that, an intra-Korean question was posed here:NorthernKorea wants to extend a friendly hand to itsbrotherswho are in South Korea under the heelLeeA sonMana...Stalin expressed some doubtshe's worriedilo, will the US get involved orlet them passears?Bothinclined to believe that if everything is donequickly,aKim Il Sung was sure that everything would happen quickly, then US intervention would be ruled out.Still, Stalindecided to askmore Mao Zedong's opinion on Kim's proposal IR C ena....Mao responded with approval. Must clearly state that this action was not offeredStalin a Kim Il Sung. That one wasthe initiator, but Stalin did not hold him back. Yes, I believe that no communist has becomewould have itto keep in such a fit the liberation of the SouthKorea fromLee Seungman andAmericanreactions. It contradictedwouldcommunist worldview. I'm hereI don't judgeStalin. On the contrary, I am completely on his side. I AMand myselfwould,probably made the same decisionif it was me who had to decide."
June 25, 1950 KoreanPeople's Army (KPA) launched an offensive in the south of the country.
Clashes on the border, initiated by both the North,and the South, have happened before. However, large-scalewar,althoughthis was denied by Soviet historical science for a long time, it was North Korea that started it. The United States took advantage of the fact that the representative of the USSR temporarily did not participate in the work of the UN Security Council, and achieved the adoption of a resolution proclaiming North Korea an aggressor.
The Korean Civil War escalated into an international one. G. Truman said4
October1952
G.: “We are fighting in Korea so that we don’t have to fightWichita, Chicago, New Orleans or San Francisco Bay." The events in Korea have become confirmation of the existence of the "communist threat" for the West.
In September 1950 G.
armed forces of the United States and allied countries underthe flag of the UN troops landed in the rear of the North Korean troops and occupied almost the entire territory of Korea, advanced to the Chinese border. On October 25, 1950, the PRC government decided send volunteers to Korea. In November the Soviet Unionpenthrew an air corps (26 thousand people) into the territory of China and North Korea people, 321 aircraft) to cover the Allied forces from the air. For the first time in air battles, a test of the strength of Soviet and American aviation took place. From the US side, up to 2,400 aircraft participated in the hostilities. The US command was considering the use of nuclear weapons. At a press conference on November 30, 1950. the American president called for a worldwide mobilization against communism.
By February 1951, the front line cut through the territory of Korea along the 38th parallel. The fighting before the armistice in 1953 acquired a positional character.
In general, during the war, the DPRK lost 2.5 million people,China - about 1 million people, South Korea - 1.5 million people, USA - 140 thousand (34 thousand killed and 103 thousand wounded). The USSR lost 335 aircraft in air battles, the PRC - about600 aircraft, USA - 1182 aircraft.
War in Korearevealed a clear superiority of the new Soviet MIG-17 jet aircraft over the American ones.Vthensame timeperduring the war years, the United States re-equipped its fleet, after which the ratio of their and Soviet losses changed approximatelyWith8:1 to 2:1.
The military clash in Korea between the two military-bloc systems brought the countries to the brink of war. In Chukotka, the deployment of troops began, which, in the event of hostilities between the USSR and the USA, were to land in Alaska. In the Soviet Union, a program was adopted to build a powerful submarine fleet, designed to deprive the United States of dominance on the seas.
As seen frompublished in last years documents, the Soviet leadership sought to limit the extent of the involvement of the USSR in the conflict in Korea and prevent it from escalating into a war between the two systems of alliances. Similar sentiments existed in the United States, where the belief was widespread in the ruling circles that the war in Korea was taking place “in the wrong place at the wrong time” in order to ignite a global clash of the two blocs because of it.
From the memoirs of a participant in the war in Korea, pilot B. S. Abakumov:
At one of the airfields near Moscow, after the November air parade over Red Square, by order of the government in 1950, a group of fighter pilots was selected to assist the Democratic People's Republic of Korea during the Korean War. The group was headed by the three times Hero of the Soviet Union I. N. Kozhedub. The pilots were tasked with covering the skies of North Korea from American air raids and thereby protecting the borders of the Soviet Union on the distant approaches ... The theory of jet fighter attacks had been nurtured by our theorists for a long time. Now it allegedly found confirmation precisely on the Korean front, when the Americans did not have to wage mass battles for air superiority ... Not only captured English and Australian pilots spoke about the skill of our pilots, but also the American press and the US high command ...
After the end of the war, the main task of the policy of the USSR in the first post-war years was the restoration National economy . It began as early as 1943 as the occupiers were driven out. In 1946, a plan for the development of the country during the years of the 4th five-year plan (46-50) was adopted. By 1950, about 6,000 enterprises had been restored and rebuilt, mainly in heavy industry. An important place in the restoration of industry was given to power plants. Huge funds were directed to the restoration of the Dneproges. Already in 1947, the Dneproges gave industrial current. Agriculture emerged from the war weakened. In 46-49 years. about 11 million hectares of peasant land were cut in favor of the collective farms. The consolidation of collective farms began. In the early 1950s, fertilizers and machinery were sent to the villages, which made it possible to reach the level of 1940. In 1947, the card system was abolished and a monetary reform was carried out. The war changed the socio-political situation in the country. However, the government was concerned about the revival of political life. The country was again depressed. In 1948, special regime camps appeared for those convicted of anti-Soviet activities. In 48-53 years. political prisoners of the camps of Vorkuta, Norilsk, Pechora raised uprisings in the camps. In the same years, the deportation of the population from western Ukraine and the Baltic states to Siberian camps was carried out. There was a struggle with the creative intelligentsia. In 1946, by a decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the magazines Leningrad and Niva, the work of Zoshchenko and Akhmatova were criticized. Science has undergone an ideological defeat. Pseudo-scientists Lysenko and Lepeshinskaya received great support; they introduced their discoveries about the concept of heredity, denying the conclusions of science, and discrediting scientists. The atmosphere of fear and terror was again whipped up. A "Leningrad case" arose against prominent figures of the party of Leningrad, many of whom were repressed. In 1953, a group of Kremlin doctors were arrested and accused of Zhdanov's death. With the death of Stalin, the case was closed. On March 5, Stalin died, and there was hope for democratic reforms in the country. After the war, the international prestige of the USSR was strengthened, diplomatic relations were established with 52 countries of the world. In 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was held with the participation of the USSR, at which peace treaties were signed with the former allies of Germany. The USSR began to play a prominent role in the organization of the United Nations (UN) created in 1945. In 45-46 years. Soviet lawyers spoke at the Nuremberg trials of the main Nazi war criminals. In 1946, the "cold war" between west and east began, based on an arms race. In 1949, a council for mutual economic assistance of the countries of the socialist community was created. In 1955, the organization of the Warsaw Pact was created - a military-political union of European political countries. The USSR pursued a policy of pressure on the social. Countries, sought to influence developing countries.
1. General post-war situation. The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan
The concept of "cold war" appeared with the "light hand" of Churchill, who, speaking in Fulton (USA) on March 5, 1946, stated in his speech that Europe was divided by the "iron curtain", and called on Western civilization to declare war on "communism".
The reason for this, apparently, was the increased authority of the Soviet Union after the end of World War II, as well as the role of communists in the world. This situation was clearly unfavorable for the states and Great Britain, who did not want to give the palm in the world community.
The confrontation between the West and the Soviet Union began to take on a sharp character. Moreover, Stalin was annoyed by the economic power of the United States after the war, in which the states suffered almost no losses.
Increasingly, they began to talk about the bipolar structure of the world, standing in the ruins of the USSR gradually rose to its feet.
Two superpowers rose above all others - the USSR and the USA, between which gradually, almost imperceptibly for both opposing camps, an arms race - the "cold war" began.
In 1947, some significant events took place that had a direct impact on the course and history of the World War.
Thus, in a speech at the American Congress, US President Harry Truman proposed a foreign policy doctrine. On March 12, 1947, Truman delivered a speech at a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives, where he first noted that the seriousness of the situation forced him to appear before the general meeting of congressmen. After that, he outlined the situation in Greece in gloomy colors. “The Greek government,” he said, “works in conditions of chaos and despair ... The Greek army is small and poorly equipped. She needs supplies and weapons in order to restore the authority of the government over the entire territory of Greece. Recognizing that he proposed to interfere in the internal affairs of other states far from America and that the course he recommended to take was very serious, Truman tried to justify his policy by saying that the United States should interfere in the lives of other peoples, allegedly in order to help the majority against minorities. Truman noted that if the United States refused "to provide assistance to Greece and Turkey at this fateful hour, then this would have far-reaching consequences for the West as well as for the East", in connection with which he asked Congress to allocate "aid" to these two states over the next 15 months, $ 400 million. In conclusion, Truman said that the United States spent on the second world war The $341 billion that the appropriation he is now offering is a trifle: only 0.1% of US spending on this war.
This address of the President of the United States on March 12, 1947 to Congress was called "doctrine a". Despite the preparatory work carried out, the "Truman Doctrine" met with strong opposition in Congress. The debate dragged on for two months. Many in Congress were aware of what the US President's undertaking meant.
However, on May 22, 1947, the "Truman Doctrine" came into force. Congress, in authorizing US intervention in the internal affairs of the countries of the Middle East, approved Washington's support for reactionary forces and regimes around the world, a course that is truly fraught with far-reaching consequences. With his doctrine, Truman ensured that Congress imposed unilateral obligations on the United States without securing either allies or UN support.
At this time, "on the other side of the ocean" also took place certain political events. At an information meeting of representatives of a number of communist parties in Warsaw at the end of September 1947, it was noted that the "Truman Doctrine" was openly aggressive. "It is designed to provide American assistance to reactionary regimes that actively oppose the USSR and the countries of the socialist camp."
The Soviet Union condemned the aggressive nature of the Truman Doctrine. The US military intervention in Greece also drew condemnation from the world community. This forced the US leadership to change the tactics of implementing its further hegemonic plans.
In an effort to overcome the resistance of the peoples, the extreme monopoly circles in the United States decided to use more disguised forms of their actions. So a new version of their policy appeared - the "Marshall Plan".
The idea of the plan was not new. His family tree dates back to 1919-1923, when the ARA (American Reliet Administration) was created, which pursued not so much a policy of helping European countries affected by the First World War, but a policy of combating the revolutionary movement and strengthening economic and political America's positions.
In May 1947, as a result, the communists were removed from the governments of Italy and France. The "Marshall Plan" was camouflaged with talk about the need for the economic recovery of Europe, but American capital cared least of all about the economy of its competitors, it was interested in military allies. President Truman acknowledged this a few years later, noting that economic aid to Europe was intended to support rearmament rather than further general economic expansion.
On June 5, 1947, US Secretary of State J. Marshall, former Chief of Staff of the US Army, delivered a keynote address on the problems of the post-war reconstruction of Europe, he put forward the idea of allocating financial resources for the restoration of European countries. Without restoring a normal economic situation in the world, J. Marshall summarized, it is impossible to ensure "political stability" and peace.
J. Marshall's speech on June 5, 1947 testified to the intention of the US leadership to expand the practice of interference in European affairs. George Marshall's speech marked an important milestone: the US was moving on to asserting its positions in Europe on a long-term, orderly basis. Whereas previously US economic intervention had been carried out on a case-by-case basis in individual countries of the continent, now the question was raised of a large-scale program of penetration into all states in need of economic assistance.
The Marshall Plan was designed to solve a number of interrelated tasks: strengthening the shattered foundations of capitalism in Europe, ensuring America's dominant position in European affairs, and preparing for the creation of a military-political bloc. At the same time, Germany, more precisely, its western part, was already thought of as the main ally of the United States in Europe and the main recipient of assistance under the Marshall Plan at this stage.
The task of carrying out the plan in Europe was entrusted to the American leadership of British and French diplomacy. After the meeting of the foreign ministers of the two countries on June 17-18, 1947, the governments of England and France turned to the Soviet government with an invitation to meet in Paris for a tripartite meeting of foreign ministers to discuss the "Marshall Plan". The calculation was made on the refusal of the Soviet Union and, as a result, the further isolation of the USSR, on shifting the blame for the difficult economic situation in Europe and for its split on it.
However, the USSR agreed to take part in the tripartite meeting. At the Paris meeting, which took place from June 27 to July 2, 1947, the British and French Foreign Ministers proposed the creation of committees to develop a coordinated economic program, which would then be submitted to Washington for consideration. Thus, the United States would have the right to determine the direction of development of key sectors of the European economy. The Soviet Union agreed to accept the "Marshall Plan" subject to the preservation of the sovereignty of European countries and the distinction between those countries that fought in the war as allies, neutral countries and former enemies, especially Germany. These requirements were not accepted. American capitalism has demonstrated its vitality and its ability to exercise international hegemony. For the USSR, there was nothing left but to choose between an agreement with the "Marshall Plan" and recognition of the leading role of America, to which Western Europe had already agreed, and non-agreement and the risk of opening confrontations with it. Stalin made a choice definitely in favor of the second solution.
On April 3, 1948, the US Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948, to which the US recognized West Germany as its ally and gave it obvious preference.
2. Eastern Europe
After the Second World War, the countries of Eastern Europe found themselves in the sphere of influence of the USSR. Then they then formed the basis of the "socialist camp" on the European continent, it was thanks to a series of agreements of the great powers that they restored statehood, acquired national-state borders, guarantees of territorial integrity and became an essential component of the system of international relations.
The creation in 1949 of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was another result in strengthening the emerging bloc by linking the economies of Eastern Europe to the USSR and subordinating to the interests of the bloc as a whole. The conclusion of a political union in which the Soviet Union had a monopoly on administrative functions. Another field of confrontation between the superpowers was Germany.
In 1955, the division of Europe between East and West finally took shape. However, a clear frontier of confrontation has not yet completely divided Europe. There was one unclosed “window” left in it - Berlin. The city was divided in half, with East Berlin being the capital of the GDR, and West Berlin considered its part of the FRG. Two opposing social systems coexisted within the same city, while every Berliner could freely get "from socialism to capitalism" and back, moving from one street to another. Every day up to 500 thousand people crossed this invisible border in both directions. Many East Germans, taking advantage of the open border, left for the West forever. Thousands of people moved in this way every year, which greatly worried the East German authorities. And in general, the wide open window in the "Iron Curtain" did not at all correspond to the general spirit of the era.
In August 1961, the Soviet and East German authorities decided to close the border between the two parts of Berlin. The tension in the city grew. Western countries protested the division of the city. Finally, in October, the confrontation reached highest point. At the Brandenburg Gate and on Friedrichstrasse, near the main checkpoints, American tanks lined up. Soviet combat vehicles came out to meet them. For more than a day, the tanks of the USSR and the USA stood with guns aimed at each other. Periodically, the tankers turned on the engines, as if preparing for an attack. The tension was somewhat relieved only after the Soviet, and after them the American tanks, withdrew to other streets. 
However, Western countries finally recognized the division of the city only ten years later. It was formalized by an agreement of four powers (USSR, USA, England and France), signed in 1971. All over the world, the construction of the Berlin Wall was perceived as a symbolic completion of the post-war division of Europe.
3. Creation of military blocs and struggle for countries
The world was divided into two blocks: East and West, where the USSR became the personification of the first, and the USA - the second. Of course, they were not the only participants in the Cold War, gathering other states under their "wing" according to the principle "whoever is not with us is against us."
The next step was to create international organizations, the so-called collective security systems. 
In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO, which included the United States, Canada and the countries of Western Europe, appeared. And in May 1955, the Warsaw Pact was signed. At the time of signing, it included Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, USSR, Czechoslovakia.
The polarization of the world has ended, and the created coalitions, led by their leaders, began to fight for influence in the countries of the third world.
In the first post-war years, a special struggle between opponents was for two European states - Finland and Norway.
Under the armistice agreement signed in Moscow on September 19, 1944, Finland was forced to cede a significant territory to the Soviet Union, demobilize the army, transfer the Porkkala Udd area, not far from Helsinki, to the USSR for a long-term lease, to create there military base and pay $300 million in reparations. The Allied Control Commission (JCC) arrived in Helsinki to monitor the fulfillment of the terms of the armistice, headed by A.A. Zhdanov, a member of the Politburo of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, and which was in fact under the complete control of the Soviet side.
With the support and under the supervision of the Chairman of the JCC A. A. Zhdanov, the Communist Party of Finland was revived, and then a coalition of leftist forces was formed - the Democratic Union of the People of Finland (DSNF), where the communists played the leading role.
The peace treaty with Finland, concluded in Paris on February 10, 1947, fully satisfied Soviet interests: it fixed all the "territorial" articles of the Armistice Agreement, restrictions on the armed forces, provisions on the "democratization" of the country and a ban on anti-Soviet propaganda. However, what had been achieved no longer seemed to the Soviet leadership a sufficient guarantee of influence on Finland.
Having learned about the desire of Finland, whose economy was in a rather difficult condition, to receive US economic assistance under the Marshall Plan, the Soviet side put strong pressure on the country's government.
As a result of lengthy negotiations between the USSR and Finland, an agreement on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance was signed, which became the basis of relations between the two countries for the entire period of the Cold War. Partially giving up freedom of action in foreign policy, Finland defended its independence and social structure, taking a special place in the international arena, something in between the position of an ally of the USSR and a “benevolent neutral”.
As for Norway, being the closest neighbor of the USSR, it traditionally maintained equal relations with it. The only contentious issue between the two countries was the Soviet attempt in 1944 to secure a condominium over the strategically important Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, which belongs to Norway. Transformed during lengthy negotiations into a more moderate draft agreement on the joint defense of the islands, the Soviet demands were finally rejected by the Norwegian side on February 15, 1947. The Soviet Union, which never considered Norway a part of its sphere of influence, resigned itself to this outcome: the aggravation of the situation could only push the Norwegians "into the arms" of England and the USA. Nevertheless, the Svalbard issue caused considerable concern among Norwegian politicians.
As a result, at the beginning of 1948, two options for solving this problem were opened. The first, proposed by the Swedish government, was to create a neutral military bloc of the Scandinavian countries. The second is in joining the Western Union. Both options had their advantages and disadvantages. The Norwegian government hesitated: in intensive consultations with the Swedes, it simultaneously turned to the United States with a request: what kind of help could be expected from them in case of war.
The situation of uncertainty was suddenly resolved by a crisis in early March 1948. Before the shock of the communist takeover in Czechoslovakia and Stalin's letter about a mutual assistance pact with Finland had passed, rumors began to spread throughout Europe that a similar pact would soon be offered to Norway.
On March 6, a message appeared that "after Finland, it will be Norway's turn." A day earlier, similar information was received in Washington from the American mission in Helsinki and immediately passed on to the Norwegians.
On March 8, Foreign Minister Lange informed the American ambassador that Norway would refuse the Soviet proposal for a mutual assistance pact, and inquired about possible US military assistance. On the same day, he made a similar request to the British Ambassador.
For supporters of a military alliance of Western countries in England and the United States, a decisive moment has come - Norway's request for help, as it were, was pushing for immediate action.
On March 11, a memorandum was sent to US Secretary of State J. Marshall on the proposal to conclude an "Atlantic Mutual Assistance Pact, in which ... the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Ireland, Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, France" could participate. The very next day, Marshall agreed, and at the Washington Conference of representatives of the USA, Great Britain and Canada, held on March 22 - April 1, 1948, a preliminary draft of the Atlantic Pact was developed, which later formed the basis of the treaty establishing NATO.
Norway at that moment had not yet made a final choice, still preferring the union of the Scandinavian countries, but with its link to the Atlantic security system. When it became clear that Sweden would not agree to this condition, cherishing its traditional neutrality, the Norwegian government formally joined NATO on April 4, 1949. However, it stipulated a special status for itself, refusing to deploy foreign bases and troops on its territory in peacetime.
As a result, this military bloc turned out to be one of the most significant and influential organizations in the world, not a single one could (and does not) do without its participation. controversial issue in Europe. As of today, the future of this bloc is likely to look optimistic. At least as long as eastward expansion is successful, there is nothing Russia can do about it.
4. A new round of the Cold War in the face of the Cuban Missile Crisis
In 1959, a revolution took place in Cuba, as a result of which Fidel Castro came to power. Active opposition to American influence on the island began.
Of course, the Soviet Union supported the Cuban authorities. However, open confrontation could not be allowed, since the forces were too unequal (by the beginning of the 60s, the United States had an obvious advantage in the field of weapons).
Thus, the United States was significantly ahead of the USSR in the deployment of naval nuclear forces. The George Washington-class nuclear submarines carried 16 Polaris-A missiles each, which were launched from a submerged position. In the early 60s they were based in Holy Loch ( West Coast Scotland) and carried out combat patrols in the North Atlantic.
The Soviet Navy has just begun to deploy a group of missile submarines. Project 658 nuclear submarines with three R-13 missiles were still being tested. Only diesel-electric submarines of project 611 with two R-11FM missiles and project 629 with three R-13 missiles were in the combat strength of the fleet.
In general, by the beginning of the 1960s, the United States had quantitative and qualitative superiority in the field of strategic nuclear weapons and could hypothetically win a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.
The significance of this superiority was already evident at the Vienna meeting at highest level in June 1961. All of Khrushchev's demands for West Berlin and Cuba "crashed" against the smile of John F. Kennedy.
Moreover, the results of space reconnaissance conducted in 1961 clearly showed that instead of 200 missiles (the old CIA estimate), the Soviet Union had only four MCRs deployed in Plesetsk, while the US had 40 ICBM launchers.
This circumstance significantly changed American plans for the use of nuclear weapons. It turned out that with practically two or three Jupiter missiles from Turkish territory, the deployment of which was completed in May 1962, it was possible to destroy all the intercontinental missiles of the USSR.
It became clear to the Soviet leadership that the Americans no longer believed the bluff about the "nuclear and missile power" of the Soviet Union. The situation on the “Soviet-American front of the Cold War” threatened not only with the loss of Cuba and world prestige in general, but also with a possible defeat in a nuclear war.
Therefore, only one way out of this impasse was found - the creation of a weighty threat of nuclear strikes against objects located on the territory of the United States.
On May 24, 1962, at an enlarged meeting of the USSR Defense Council, a decision was made to create a Group of Soviet Forces in Cuba, which included a missile division consisting of five missile regiments armed with medium-range missiles.
The deployment of a group of medium-range missiles in Cuba was brilliantly carried out by the USSR during Operation Anadyr in July-October 1962. Even despite its incompleteness, it was possible to achieve military-strategic parity and change the balance of strategic forces in the Western Hemisphere.
October 14 comes, the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba is no longer a secret for the Americans. Now the United States was faced with a matter of life and death, the resolution of which required either decisive action or concessions.
Analysts' calculations, which lasted for a week, showed that, despite the fact that in response to the launch of Soviet missiles from Cuba, the American side could strike at the territory of the Soviet Union, the losses for the United States in this case would become completely unacceptable.
The American side undertook not to attack the island of Liberty in exchange for the withdrawal of Soviet strategic offensive weapons from Cuba. Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed confidentially that the US would eliminate the medium-range missile groups deployed in Britain, Italy and Turkey, which was done.
5. Afghanistan
The next "point of contact" between the interests of the US and the USSR, apart from the Vietnam War, can be called actions against Afghanistan.
In April 1978, a coup took place in Afghanistan, later called the April Revolution. Afghan communists came to power - the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). The government was headed by the writer Nur Mohammed Taraki. However, within a few months, a sharp struggle flared up within the ruling party.
In August 1979, a confrontation broke out between the two leaders of the party - Taraki and Amin. On September 16, Taraki was removed from his post, expelled from the party and taken into custody.
These events caused discontent in Moscow, although outwardly everything remained as before. The mass “purges” and executions in the party environment that began in Afghanistan caused condemnation. And, since they reminded the Soviet leaders of the Chinese "cultural revolution", there were fears that Amin might break with the USSR and move closer to China.
Amin repeatedly asked for the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan to strengthen the revolutionary power, and finally, on December 12, 1979, the Soviet leadership decided to fulfill his request, but at the same time remove Amin himself. 
Soviet troops were brought into Afghanistan, Amin was killed by a grenade explosion during the storming of the presidential palace.
In the West, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan caused violent protests. The Cold War broke out with renewed vigor.
However, the war in Afghanistan did not stop for more than nine years. More than a million Afghans died during the hostilities. Soviet troops, according to official figures, lost 14,453 people killed.
In June 1987, the first, so far symbolic, steps towards peace were taken. The new Kabul government offered "national reconciliation" to the rebels.
In April 1988, the Soviet Union signed an agreement in Geneva on the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. On May 15, the troops began to leave, and nine months later, on February 15, 1989, the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan.
6. End of the Cold War
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe can be considered the beginning of the end of the Cold War. The participating countries consulted for two years, and in 1975 in Helsinki, these countries signed the Final Act of the meeting. On the part of the USSR, it was sealed by Leonid Brezhnev. This document legalized the post-war division of Europe, which was what the USSR was striving for. In exchange for this Western concession, the Soviet Union pledged to respect human rights.
The next active actions aimed at a truce took place only in the late 80s and early 90s.
In 1988-89, with the beginning of perestroika, drastic changes took place in Soviet politics. In November 1989, the Berlin Wall ceased to exist. On July 1, 1991, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved. The socialist camp collapsed. 
In a number of countries - its former members - democratic revolutions took place, which not only were not condemned, but were supported by the USSR. The Soviet Union also refused to expand its influence in the countries of the third world. Such a sharp turn in Soviet foreign policy in the West is associated with the name of Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev.
In addition, a number of major arms control agreements were signed, which undoubtedly marked the end of the Cold War. Multilateral and bilateral treaties and agreements on disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, concluded as part of the disarmament process, have helped to reduce the tension in the military-political situation at the global level and to reduce various types of weapons.
However, the opening of the "Iron Curtain" did not lead to the establishment of good neighborly relations between the peoples. On the contrary, it became the reason for the destabilization of international relations in the face of the collapse or weakening of intra-bloc discipline.
The split occurred not only at the international level, but also within the USSR: the latter collapsed, creating a new union - the CIS.
Thus, the end of the Cold War led to the development of a trend of transition from a confrontational bipolar to a multipolar world. The centripetal forces that attracted a significant part of the rest of the world to each of the two superpowers sharply weakened.
After the collapse of the Warsaw Pact, and then the USSR, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in their predominant number ceased to focus on Russia, which acted as the successor to the Soviet Union. Russia's ties with the sovereign countries of the CIS - the former parts of the practically unitary USSR - have also fundamentally weakened.
Simultaneously, similar trends developed around the United States. Greater than before, the countries of Western Europe began to show independence, having ceased to depend on the American "nuclear umbrella". Their attraction to the "Eurocenter" is gradually taking over the transatlantic orientation.
Against the backdrop of Japan's rapidly expanding positions in the world, the bonds of its military-political dependence on the United States are weakening. It is characteristic that a process of strengthening independence is taking place, and those countries that were farther from the epicenter of the bipolar confrontation did not directly adjoin any superpower. First of all, this conclusion is true for China, which is rapidly increasing its economic potential.
But still, this does not yet allow us to say that a multipolar world has already taken shape, and most importantly, that an equal partnership has already come to replace the balance of power system on which the world order was based. At the same time, the inertia of political thinking continues to affect in the most negative way. The stereotypes that took root during the 40 years of the Cold War in the minds of several generations of statesmen have not yet disappeared along with the dismantling of strategic missiles and the destruction of thousands of tanks.
Thus, the nature of international relations for the transitional period from a confrontational to a democratic world has not yet been determined. Meanwhile, the ability and possibility of overcoming new dangers, threats and challenges of the post-confrontation period depend on what this character will be like.
