Chapter # 8
Lecture number 36
Russian culture in the 19th century
First half of the 19th century
Education and Science
In the very early XIX century in Russia, the system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed. Held in 1803 year, the reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town, and a school in every county town. Parish schools were also created in rural areas, where children of different classes were accepted. For management educational institutions the Ministry of Public Education was created.
V 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),
The government of Alexander I paid much attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University before that in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Dorpat (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).
Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became estates-isolated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "lower classes". During the year they taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic. Children of merchants, artisans, burghers were admitted to the district three-class schools. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in the seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in grammar schools and universities. Control over universities that were considered sources of "unreliability" was tightened. In 1835, the universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.
The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855 - the Artillery and Engineering Academy.
Growth industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational and technical educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.
The development of domestic science also contributed to the improvement of the education system.
| Biology | |
| Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky | Refuted the statement about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that earth surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo radical changes over time under the influence of natural causes. |
| Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky | He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process. |
| Karl Maksimovich Baer | The work "The General Law of the Development of Nature" became a serious step forward in substantiating the concept of the development of living organisms. |
| The medicine | |
| Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov | Professor of the Medical and Surgical Academy, the founder of military field surgery. During the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during an operation, and used an immobile plaster cast to treat fractures. |
| Mathematics | |
| Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Created non-euclidean geometry |
| Physics | |
| Vasily Petrov | Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - the prototype of the future light bulb. |
| Boris Semenovich Jacobi | Invented the electric motor, electroplating - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing apparatus for the telegraph |
| Emil Christianovich Lenz | He established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented |
| Pavel Lvovich Schilling | Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires |
| Chemistry | |
| Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff | Developed a method for producing glucose. |
| Herman Ivanovich Hess | Discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy as applied to chemical processes |
| Petr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky | Powder metallurgy began |
| Science in production | |
| Pavel Petrovich Anosov | Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel |
| Efim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics | The first steam room was built railroad |
| Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov | Created stable chemical dyes for the rapidly developing textile industry |
| Story | |
| Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin | Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State" |
| Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev | Wrote "History of Russia from Ancient Times" in 29 volumes |
Russian discoverers and travelers
| Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky | In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round the world expedition more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island was mapped. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis for the published Atlas South Seas». |
| Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev | In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of the then unknown Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russians Islands. For 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, brought valuable collections, observation data on the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind |
| Alexander Andreevich Baranov | He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary.It was he who managed to secure vast territories on the Pacific coast to Russia. North America |
| Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky | In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. |
| Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin | In the years 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelskoy, he laid the foundation for the consolidation of the Primorsky region for Russia at Far East. |
Art culture
The "Golden Age" of Russian Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national identity... Writers and poets turned to the country's historical past, trying to find answers to modern questions in it.
An important feature development of literature and art of this time was a rapid change in artistic directions and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.
The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism... His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, he was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.
The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activity of a historian was creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin... In the story "Martha Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow") traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong The Russian state... These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State."
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.
One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism... Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero opposing himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.
Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the establishment of a strong, liberated personality
The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.
In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of his career, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by life optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These traits were predominant in romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who outlined the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. Outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of late Pushkin (who is rightfully considered the ancestor of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama Boris Godunov, the stories The Captain's Daughter, Dubrovsky, Belkin's Tale, the Bronze Horseman poem, and others. as well as Lermontov's novel A Hero of Our Time.
In the 20-50s. another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to portray the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and by the very content of the works requiring changes.
The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls," "The Inspector General," and others, began the "Gogol period" of Russian literature in the 1930s and 1940s. “We all came out of Gogol’s Overcoat,” FM later noted. Dostoevsky.
Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky showed the reader the realistic world of the Russian merchants in his first drama "Our people - we will be numbered", revealing the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained a rich life experience associated with the life and customs of the Russian merchants.
In the 40-50s. the central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores. A literary event was the publication of "Notes of a Hunter" by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian zone, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.
The hopeless poverty and oppression of the serf were portrayed in Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich's stories "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyka". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about Anton's misfortunes and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."
The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.
Theatre
In Russian theater, the change in artistic directions occurred as quickly as in literature.
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism prevailed on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots and external splendor.
In the 20-30s. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in the drama of F. Schiller “Treachery and Love). His play was distinguished by stormy emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.
In the 40s. begins a new page in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In drama, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the largest public event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor of the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He with great skill conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the former Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet performances) and Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Maly in its official character.
Music
Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If before the household opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of the historical past of Russia. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".
The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motives sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamov, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.
The romantic trend in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. "The people create music," he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it. "
Glinka managed to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the founder of the main genres of Russian professional music. The most vivid idea of the composer's work is provided by his opera "A Life for the Tsar" ("Ivan Susanin"). In it, Glinka glorified a simple peasant-patriot and at the same time the courage, steadfastness and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.
Development national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.
Painting
During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.
Karl Pavlovich Bryullov became the largest figure of classicism in Russian painting. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of a common man in a natural disaster. In this work of Bryullov, a striving for realism became apparent. It manifested itself in all of his paintings: "Self-portrait", "Horsewoman", etc.
The outstanding representatives of romanticism in painting were the remarkable portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed a sublime beginning, an inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. Distinctive feature Tropinin's creativity was a show of a person in his surroundings, for a favorite thing. Such are his genre portraits of "The Lacemaker", "Guitarist", "Gold Embroidery" and others. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of the picture is the belief in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. Words that can show people the way to a better future.
Pavel Andreevich Fedotov became the founder of critical realism in Russian painting. In his genre paintings, he managed to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "Fresh Cavalier" and "The Courtship of a Major", in which one can see the drama of situations, the author's critical position in relation to reality.
The birth of the genre, popular in the 19th century, is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were devoted to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On arable land. Spring "," At the harvest. Summer ”,“ Zakharka ”, in the portrait gallery of peasants, he portrayed their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the "Venetian school".
In the genre of seascape worked I.K. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with an amazingly picturesque depiction of the sea element. The painting "The Ninth Wave" acquired particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master's unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic nature of his work during this period.
The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.
Architecture
In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creation. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its peak at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, austerity of lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire style was also sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings. In the Empire style, palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, assemblies of the nobility, public places, theaters and even temples were erected.
The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. In St. Petersburg, it was then that the Palace, Admiralteyskaya and Senatskaya squares were formed, in Moscow - Teatralnaya.
The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreian Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.
In Moscow, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were performed in the Empire style: Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Teatralnaya Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.
Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored public buildings in Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.
With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton in this style created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc.
The largest Orthodox church Petersburg was Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, under the personal control of Emperor Nicholas I.
| Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral | Interior decoration St. Isaac's Cathedral |
Sculpture
The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. Especially a lot of works that organically fit into architectural ensembles was created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps at the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Peter Karlovich Klodt: "The tamer of horses" on the Anichkov bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I erected on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments in Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody the lofty ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand at Moscow, hands over an ancient sword to Prince Pozharsky and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded voivode rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of the people's consciousness at a difficult hour for the Fatherland.
The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "Golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: a rapid change in artistic styles and trends, mutual enrichment and close relationship of literature and other areas of art, strengthening of the public sound of the works created, organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.
Second half of the 19th century
Education
The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness of society and the state of the need for a broad enlightenment of the people. The reform in the field of education, carried out in 1864, expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:
1) zemstvo schools, created by the forces of zemstvos
2) church schools
3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education
Reform secondary schools were divided into two types:
-classical gymnasiums- in them, the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanitarian cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;
Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their great attention to natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.
Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parish schools, but the state did not have enough money for their maintenance. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most widespread type of primary school, covering all provincial and county towns, to also many rural areas. The main type high school there were gymnasiums. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, after a quarter of a century the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. about 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.
There were also successes in higher education. New universities were opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the self-government rights of universities.
There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical and Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, Communications, Electrotechnical Universities, Petrovsk Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher education for women took place. TO late XIX century in Russia, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions.
Overall, however, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the census in 1897 average level literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had a higher education, 4% had a secondary education.
Scientific discoveries
| Mathematics and physics | |
| Pafnuti Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist | Constructed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal while walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - an arithmometer. |
| Alexander G. Stoletov - physicist | By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light |
| Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist | He made a transmitter-receiver, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For its discovery, he was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. |
| Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist | He created an arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world. |
| Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky | Constructed the world's first airplane |
| Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov | Invented the tracked tractor |
| Chemistry, biology | |
| Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist | Discovered the periodic law chemical elements, |
| Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist | Laid the foundations of organic chemistry |
| Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist | Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting forest protection belts |
| Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist | He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby realizing a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically proved the unity and mutual dependence of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain. |
| Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist | He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern concepts of the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the body to environment... If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the organism, inherent in all representatives of a given species, then the conditioned reflex is the reacquisition of the organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience. |
| Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists | They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods of combating rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants. |
| Geography | |
| Academician, Admiral Fedor Petrovich Litke - geographer | Examined Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific Ocean |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer | He carried out major geological and zoological surveys in Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand specimens, 218 new plant species were discovered. |
| Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer | Dedicated his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. Has won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwest coast of this island, southeast coast, committed two hardest travel in the interior regions of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. |
| Humanitarian sciences | |
| Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev | Created a 29 - volume "History of Russia from Ancient Times". His Public Readings on Peter the Great, timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointing out the general features of the development of Russia and Western Europe. |
| Soloviev's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky | He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus" at Moscow University. He was the author of the "Course in Russian History", which he taught at Moscow University |
Domestic science second half of the XIX century came to the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country, which came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.
Literature
The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of accusation, a keen interest in the life of an ordinary person, a desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: "Provincial Essays", "The History of a City", "Lord Golovlev", "Pompadours and Pompadours". The artistic device used by the writer is grotesque. In his works, he takes all existing vices and weaknesses to the extreme. The writer knows no mercy for either officials or representatives high society, nickname for merchants, nor for the nascent bourgeoisie.
The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited such places where the foot of a European had never gone before. In the second half XIX century... their efforts were focused on exploring the interior regions of Asia.
Expeditions deep into Asia began Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of journeys to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Heading the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in the development of plans for new expeditions.
The activities of others were also associated with the Russian Geographical Society. Russian travelers- P. A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.
PA Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled across Northern Manchuria, Sayan and Vitim plateau.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuriysk Territory, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia. He crossed Mongolia, Northern China several times, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, and visited Tibet. He died on the way, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ ascetics are needed like the sun». « Composing the most poetic and cheerful element of society, he added, they excite, comfort and ennoble ... If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types, given by life itself, stand beyond any price.».
Overseas Russian travel scientists in the second half of the 19th century... have become more focused. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the way of life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This direction, which began in the XVIII century. put S.P. Krasheninnikov, was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888)... He made his first travels to Canary Islands and by North Africa... In the early 70s, he visited a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). Russian scientist won trust and love local residents... Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, again returned to " Maclay coast". The descriptions of the life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania compiled by the scientist were published in a significant part only after his death.
World geographical science in those years was largely based on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era is over geographical discoveries ... And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.
>> Russian discoverers and travelers
§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers
The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian researchers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the ideas of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time fulfilled an old dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.
I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky.
Lesson content lesson outline support frame lesson presentation accelerative methods interactive technologies Practice tasks and exercises self-test workshops, trainings, cases, quests home assignments discussion questions rhetorical questions from students Illustrations audio, video clips and multimedia photos, pictures, charts, tables, schemes humor, jokes, jokes, comics parables, sayings, crosswords, quotes Supplements abstracts articles chips for the curious cheat sheets textbooks basic and additional vocabulary of terms others Improving textbooks and lessonsbug fixes in the tutorial updating a fragment in the textbook elements of innovation in the lesson replacing obsolete knowledge with new ones For teachers only perfect lessons calendar plan for the year methodological recommendations of the discussion program Integrated lessonsXIX century. became the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by the Russian people. Continuing the traditions of its predecessors - discoverers and travelers of the XVII-XVI11 centuries. they enriched the perception of Russians about the world around them, cno-j contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. For the first time, Russia has realized an old dream: Russian ships entered the World Ocean.
In 1803, at the direction of Alexander I, an expedition was undertaken on two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" to explore the North Pacific Ocean. This was the first Russian round-the-world expedition, which lasted three years. It was headed by Corresponding Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770-1846). He was one of the greatest navigators and geographers of the century. During the expedition, for the first time, more than a thousand kilometers of the shores of the island were mapped. Sakhalin. The participants of the trip left many interesting observations not only about the Far East, but also about the territories through which they sailed. The commander of the "Neva" Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837) discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of interesting data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. The results of the observations were reported to the Academy of Sciences. They were so significant that I.F. Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials were used as a basis * published in the early 20's. Atlas of the South Seas. In 1845, Admiral Kruzenshtern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society and educated a whole galaxy of Russian navigators and explorers.
One of the students and followers of Kruzenshtern was Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition, and after her return he commanded the frigate Minerva on the Black Sea. In 1819-1821. he was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on the sloops Vostok (which he commanded) and Mirny (Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev was appointed commander). The project of the expedition was drawn up by Kruzenshtern. Its main goal was designated “the acquisition of the fullest knowledge about our the globe"And" the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole. " On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time to anyone, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands in the Tuamotu archipelago, called the Russians. Each of them received the name of a famous military or naval leader of our country (Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Wittgenstein, Ermolov, etc.). After a new stop in Sydney, the expedition again moved to Antarctica, where Fr. Peter I and the coast of Alexander I. In July 1821 she returned to Kronstadt. For 751 days of sailing, the Russian ships covered a distance of about 50 thousand miles. In addition to the geographical discoveries made, valuable ethnographic and biological collections, data from observations of the waters of the World Ocean and ice coverings of a continent new to humanity were also brought. Later, both leaders of the expedition heroically showed themselves in the military service of the Fatherland. And M.P. After the defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Navarino (1827), Lazarev was appointed chief commander of the Black Sea Fleet and Russian ports on the Black Sea coast.
The largest researcher of the Russian Far East in the middle of the century was Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy (1813-1876). Having since the 18th century. vast possessions in the Far East, Russia has not succeeded in developing them. Even the exact limits of the country's eastern possessions were not known. Meanwhile, England began to show attention to Kamchatka and other Russian territories. This forced Nicholas I, at the suggestion of the Governor-General Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov (Amursky) to equip a special expedition to the east in 1848. Captain Nevelskoy was put at its head. In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855), he managed, bypassing Sakhalin from the north, to discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur, where in 1850 he founded the Nikolaevsky Post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelskoy's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin is not at all connected to the mainland, but is an island and the Tatar Strait is precisely a strait, and not a bay, as La Perouse, who first visited these places, believed.
Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin (1804-1883) in 1822-1825 committed trip around the world and left to descendants a description of "many of what he saw. In 1852-1855, during the expedition he led on the frigate" Pallada ", the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands were discovered. there is a treaty (1855).
The result of the expeditions of Nevelskoy and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the recognition by Europe of the existence of the Primorsky region (Nikolaevsk) and the fact of its belonging to Russia.
In the first half of the XIX century. other discoveries were also made. Round-the-world expeditions have become traditional: V.M. Golovnina; on the sloops "Diana" (1807-1811) and "Kamchatka" (1817-1819), F.P. Litke on a military sloop "Senyavin" (1826-1829, according to the materials of which more than 50 maps were drawn up), etc.
Exceptionally useful and necessary information on Alaska, Aleutian and Kuril Islands spent in 1839-1849; I.G. Voznesensky.
In 1809 A.E. Kolodkin began an intensive exploration of the Caspian Sea, which ended 17 years later with the compilation of the first Atlas of the Caspian Sea.
In 1848, a study of the Northern Urals was carried out (up to Kara Sea) expedition E.K. Hoffman and M.A. Kowalski.
Expeditions in the north of Siberia, carried out in 1842-1845, were crowned with tremendous results. A.F. Middendorf (who first described the Taimyr Territory).
P.A. Chikhachev discovered the Kuznetsk coal basin.
The successes of Russian travelers were so capacious that it took the creation of special institutions to generalize and use the results obtained. The most important among them was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845.
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries that became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign, world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to facilitate the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.
Prerequisites
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century indicated the need to search for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia's ties with other countries. In the late 18th - early 19th centuries, our country finally consolidated its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign states.
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century established themselves as talented navigators at the very time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And this is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for naval research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets, and naval affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under consideration, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.
Around the World Expedition Plan
Such a project became possible largely due to the successful military actions of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia got the opportunity to build its own fleet in the Black Sea, which, of course, was supposed to stimulate maritime affairs. Russian seafarers at this time seriously thought about building convenient trade routes. This was also facilitated by the fact that our country owned Alaska in North America. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.
I.F. At the end of the 18th century, Kruzenshtern presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, he was then rejected. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He got approval.
Training
I.F. Kruzenshtern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, being his student, took part in the war against Sweden, having established himself well then. After that, he was sent to an internship in England, where he received an excellent education. Upon returning to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.
His closest assistant in this matter was his friend Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He made friends with him while still in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790. Soon two ships were equipped under the names "Neva" and "Nadezhda". The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.
Swimming
Russian sailors rounded Cape Horn and, having entered the Pacific Ocean, parted. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian merchant city of Novo-Arkhangelsk captured by the Indians. During this trip, he also spent the first time in the history of navigation sailing ship around South Africa.
The vessel "Nadezhda" headed by Kruzenshtern set off for the Sea of Japan. The merit of this researcher is that he carefully explored the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to research what the management had been interested in for a long time. Pacific Fleet... Kruzenshtern entered the Amur estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.
Kruzenshtern's contribution to science
Travelers to Russia have significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books describing the results of their research. Kruzenshtern published A Journey Around the World, but his atlas with hydrographic supplements is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map, conducted the most valuable research of the seas and oceans. So, he studied the pressure and temperature of water, sea currents, ebbs and flows.
Social activity
His further career was closely associated with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began to teach there, and then generally headed it. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Maritime Academy. Kruzenshtern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This significantly increased the quality level of teaching maritime affairs.
In addition, he helped in organizing other expeditions, in particular, contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to take one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. The Atlas of the South Sea, published by him, was of particular importance for the development of geography.
Preparing a new expedition
Kruzenshtern, several years after his journey, insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed to equip two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships in each. Prior to this, the navigator almost came close to Antarctica, but ice prevented him from going further. Then he assumed that the sixth continent either does not exist, or it is impossible to get to it.
In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new sailing squadron. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a series of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: "Mirny" and "Vostok". The first was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was distinguished by its strength and water resistance. However, the second, built in Great Britain, was less stable, so it had to be altered, rebuilt and renovated more than once. The preparation and construction was supervised by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.
Travel south
A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, having rounded the mainland, came to the Sandvic Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During maneuvers, many islands were discovered and described around it. Among the most significant discoveries one can name the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the shores, as well as sketches of animals seen on the new mainland, Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.
During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia has been described. Descriptions of the new continent are of particular importance. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to better observe the earth, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.
The value of discoveries
The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for the national and world geographical science... The discovery of a new, sixth continent, turned the idea of the geography of the Earth upside down. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas attached and the necessary directions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the members of the expedition have collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is kept at the Kazan University.
Further activities
Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He took part in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indication of the recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects are named after him. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.
Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous trip to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of the expedition to protect the shores of Russian America from smugglers, with which he successfully coped. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet, participated in for which he was awarded several awards. So, the great pioneers from Russia also made their outstanding contribution to the development of geography.
