What does the history of the Middle Ages study? To form an idea of the essence of the issue, it is necessary to familiarize oneself with the subject of its study, the periodization of the main events that occurred in this segment of human history, and various points of view for the period under consideration.
The term "Middle Ages"
This term (or more precisely, “ Middle age") Originated in Italy. Humanists invented it at the end XV-early XVI cc. ad. Historians of the 17th-18th centuries have finally consolidated and divided the history of mankind into ancient, middle and modern times. In their deep conviction, and with their submission, the opinion began to wander, which is sometimes supported by some modern scientists that this was an era of cultural and spiritual decline, obscurantism, and humanity took a step back. Whether this statement is true, we will consider later in the article.
Now it is necessary to elucidate the question of why the scientists of modern times introduced this term. Everything is very simple here. They extolled Antiquity to the skies - the era, in their opinion, the flourishing of science, art and culture. Then the Great Roman Empire collapsed, and Europe plunged into chaos for centuries.
Wars, epidemics, religious intolerance and bigotry have negatively affected humanity. But then the era of the New Age began, and then the successive eras of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment gave humanity new hope for the reign of reasonable, humane and justified laws.
On the question of periodization
The time frame of the Middle Ages by historians different countries are treated in different ways. And this is not surprising, since in different corners the globe had its own characteristics and specificity. However, the beginning of the Middle Ages does not cause controversy and disagreement.
It is believed that this era entered into its legal rights with the collapse of the Roman Empire and this happened on September 4, 476. The Senate of Rome, under pressure, announced that the Western Empire no longer needed an emperor and the diadem and scepter left for Constantinople. Symbols of the imperial power and greatness of Rome.
When it came to where to end this significant period in the history of mankind, then opinions were divided. Each side offered its own version and gave a well-grounded argumentation. This is the capture of Constantinople (1455), and the beginning of the Reformation (1517) and many other equally significant and unique events.
Unfortunately, history is used as one of the most important instruments of ideological influence. At the same time, its most important and main task is forgotten - the study and analysis of the experience of mankind in order to prevent offensive and terrible mistakes. Therefore, the differences in chronology, and most importantly, the fact that the term "Middle Ages" is practically inapplicable to the history of all peoples of the world, have consolidated its convention.
Periodization
However, despite the conventionality of periodization, it is still necessary to distinguish three main periods, which are adhered to in Russian historiography and in most Western states:
Early middle ages
High, developed, or classical Middle Ages
This is the middle of the XI century - the time of the emergence of medieval cities and the beginning of the Crusades, and this period of history ends with the era of developed European trade, the flourishing of crafts and art.
Late Middle Ages, or Early Modern Times
End of the XIV-XVI centuries. - the heyday of the era of the great geographical discoveries.
A small disclaimer needs to be made. In the West, there is a different time frame for the Middle Ages. It ends happily after the famous discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492.
The Middle Ages: Subject of Study
What does history study and what is the subject of its study? These are the features, patterns and conditions for the development of society at that time. First of all, this is the origin, formation and development of feudal relations. It was they who became the main factor that influenced social relations in society and its cultural development. Thanks to feudal relations, political map that time. National cultures and characters known in modern times arose.
Source classification
Answering the question "what is studied in the history of the Middle Ages", it will be appropriate to characterize and give a classification of the sources that are used in the study of this issue. These are five types of sources that differ in the way they record information. Let's list these sources:
- Natural and geographical (thanks to its study, you can get all the necessary data on environment: climate, soil, landscape, etc. This is necessary for understanding the natural specifics of the studied region.).
- Ethnographic (folklore, customs, traditions, national costumes, dwellings, etc. are studied).
- material (this includes objects of material culture. These are weapons, utensils, jewelry, etc. All that in the form of material objects has come down to our days from the past.).
- Artistic - visual (paintings, architectural monuments, various sculptures, mosaics, etc.).
- Written (these are texts, and it does not matter what they are written in - notes, letters, hieroglyphs, cuneiform or numbers.).
Classes of written sources for the study of the history of the Middle Ages
Written sources, in turn, are divided into classes for convenience. It is necessary to briefly describe each of them. This is how they look:
- Narrative, or narrative (tell about events in an arbitrary form, sometimes using fiction).
- Documentary (such a class of a source in a formalized language illuminates narrow and individual moments in the socio-economic, legal or political spheres).
- Legislative (this class of source raises questions about the history of the Middle Ages purely in the legal field. But here one interesting feature- they very often reflect not only legislative practice. According to them, it is very clearly possible to trace how the legislator is trying to change it, sometimes for a specific situation.).
Middle Ages in Russia
As already mentioned, the periodization of the Middle Ages is a convention, therefore, understanding this phenomenon creates the conditions when it is necessary to take into account historical specifics region. It is no coincidence that medieval Russia is considered by historians as a territory where feudal relations arose more slowly, based on the data available modern science... Therefore, here the periodization looks like this:
- IX-XII centuries - Kievan Rus, led by Kiev - "the mother of Russian cities."
- XII-XIII centuries - the era of civil strife between individual principalities and the beginning of the establishment Tatar-Mongol yoke in some Russian lands.
- XIV-XVII centuries - the unification of the Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.
Why medieval Russia carried out construction much later than its European neighbors is a topic of additional research. And the final point on this issue has not yet been put.
Feudalism
The nascent feudalism and the establishment of the universal power of the Church entered into a clear antagonism with the ancient slaveholding system existing at that time, but gradually dying away. There was a change in the new socio-economic formation. Which resulted in a huge surge of violence and cruelty.
This was expressed not only in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, new players appeared on its ruins in the form of barbarian kingdoms. And the Great Migration of Peoples, which lasted from the 4th to the 7th centuries, added confusion. The changes took place, first of all, in the very environment of the barbarian tribes.
The emergence of barbarian kingdoms, the strengthening of the power of their kings inevitably led to stratification within their society. Feudal relations were the instrument that strengthened the power of the "suzerain". For this, the vassals received not only land, but also the people who cultivated them. Gradually, their descendants also received this status, with the right of further inheritance.
Strengthening the peasantry
It is necessary to briefly touch upon the main events in the history of mankind, which not only influenced the way of life of medieval society, but also created the preconditions for further development. A textbook on the history of the Middle Ages gives a brief chronology of those events that took place in more than a thousand years of history.
At the end of the 5th-beginning of the 6th centuries. (481-511) the tough and ambitious king Clovis is promoted among the Franks. He not only became the ancestor of the Merovingian dynasty. Under him, perhaps on his direct instructions, the "Salicheskaya Pravda" was issued. Thanks to her, it is possible to study and analyze the existing archaic orders. And the most important thing is the emerging property and social inequality. Clovis and his successors stubbornly conquered lands in what is now France.
But the dynasty changed and Charles I created huge empire however, it did not last long. But under him the landlessness and enslavement of the peasantry finally took shape.
The Christian religion has facilitated this process. The Church received huge allotments and riches and became so strong that it itself intervened in the affairs of European rulers and even sanctioned the predatory Crusades under the guise of a specious pretext. The most important events of the Middle Ages include many episodes that, in one way or another, influenced the course of modern history.
Cities and commerce
If one studies the history of mankind dispassionately, then one can come to the conclusion that economic interests are the basis of any conflict. It is then that the necessary ideology is formed, which sometimes pushes entire nations to mutual extermination. Medieval wars, and modern wars as well, illustrate this perfectly. But it is also true that it is the economic benefit that is the necessary engine that not only changes society, but also propels it towards progress. Trade and economic ties inevitably lead to cultural and technical borrowing.
Cities formed on major trade routes and around fortified fortresses (burgs) became centers of trade, crafts, science and culture. Sometimes people went to other countries to learn and excel in their field or to bring exotic goods.
Finally
What does the history of the Middle Ages study? It is considered to be decline and decay. At first glance, one can partially agree with this. Medieval wars, unsanitary conditions, burning of people and other "delights" do not inspire optimism. However, it should be understood that this was a necessary path for humanity when changing the socio-economic formation. The history of formation has passed a long and thorny path, but history cannot be abandoned: no matter how bitter and terrible lessons it may give.
Hnew time (early. Xvi v. - 1918 G.)
I period new history(early. XVI - 60s XIX centuries)
The period covers the formation time in Western Europe and North America industrial (capitalist) society, which gives a person the opportunity for the most complete self-realization. During this period, people invented the motor, car, steamer, steam locomotive, railway, diesel, open-hearth furnace, aviation, telephone, radio, television, electric light. In Asia, the traditional (feudal) society continued to dominate. The land was in the hands of the state (monarch), there was no principle of superiority (seniority). These factors hindered the processes of converting handicraft industries into factories, the enlargement of farms, the concentration of capital in the same hands, and, consequently, the development of capitalism.
Historical sources of the period: F. de Montlouse "On the French Monarchy", F. Millet "History of the French Revolution",
A. de Lomartin "History of the Girondins", Izelli "On the history of mankind", F. Schiller "History of the Thirty Years War",
J. Melier "History of Louis XVI", Voltaire "History of Russia in the period of Peter the Great", G. Gall "History of England from Henry VII to George II (1485-1760)", G. Leo "History of the Italian states", N.M . Karamzin "History of the Russian State", J. Bancroft "History of the United States".
I stage - XVI-XVIII cc.
During this period, the preconditions for the emergence of capitalism were formed. Bourgeois revolutions took place in Western Europe and North America.
The reasons for the great geographical discoveries: 1) the development of commodity production required additional markets for raw materials;
2) the need for additional funds and the thirst for enrichment; 3) the control of the Ottoman Empire over international trade routes (Silkovo and across the Mediterranean Sea) forced to look for new routes to Asia.
The Portuguese and Spaniards were the initiators of the great geographical discoveries.
The Portuguese in the 20-30s of the 15th century discovered Madeira, Canary and Azores, Guinea, islands Cape Verde, Sierra Leone.
Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) in 1468. circled the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) and went to Indian Ocean but did not reach India.
Christopher Columbus (Spain) 12.10 1492 landed on the island of San Salvador, discovered Haiti and Cuba. He believed that he sailed to India and discovered America; the first viceroy of the occupied lands Vasco da Gama in 1498. opened the sea route to India through Atlantic Ocean.
Amerigo Vespucci, as part of a Portuguese expedition (1499-1501), explored the coast of Brazil and came to the conclusion that open land- not India. He called them the New World.
P. Toscanelli in the 15th century. made a map of the world, but was mistaken in determining the length of the equator at 12 thousand km. Subsequently, scientists called this mistake "a great mistake that led to a great discovery."
In 1507. M. Waldseemüller proposed to name the new continent in honor of Vespucci America.
In 1515. the first globe was created in Germany, on which New World was named America. Since 1569. the name appeared on maps.
In 1519. Nunez Balloba founded Panama, the first city on the American continent.
Fernand Magellan in 1519-22. committed trip around the world, proving that the Earth is round. He died in the Philippine Islands.
In 1605. Spaniard Luis Vaez de Torres discovered Australia.
Portugal: Sunda and Moluccas in Asia, Brazil (discovered by Cabral in 1500):
Spain: 1510 - Cuba, 1529 - Philippines; Cortez conquered the Maya (Mexico) until 1679, in the 20-40s of the 16th century. Colombia was conquered,
Ecuador, Peru (Inca; Pissaro), Bolivia, later Chile and Argentina. 1510 - mid. XVII century - the policy of the conquest (conquest).
1512 - a law prohibiting the conversion of Indians into slaves. There are 2 vice-kingdoms established to govern:
New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean) and Peru (all of South America except Brazil).
England: in the XVI century. - Ireland and Scotland, in North America - Virginia (1607). 1600g. - Establishment of the East India Company.
France: - XVII century - Canada
Holland - 1652 Cape Colony in South Africa
The consequences of the great geographical discoveries: 1) world trade arose: 2) cocoa, tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes, corn were brought to Europe from America, tea, coffee, oranges from Asia; 3) Genoa and Venice lost their importance as centers of trade, world trade concentrated in the ports of the Netherlands (the world center is Antwerp), England, Portugal (Lisbon) and Spain (Seville).
Socio-economic changes in Western Europe:
The emergence of new nobles - feudal lords, using hired labor and engaged in trade and entrepreneurship;
K ser. XVII century. merchants-merchants and bankers began to represent the upper stratum of society;
From the 17th to the construction of covered markets (the first in London and Paris); daily markets;
The emergence of trading companies;
The emergence of manufactory - production based on the division of manual labor;
Improvement of production techniques (blast furnace, water engine, clock);
Improvement of military affairs (mortars (XVI century), muskets (XVII), pistols, grenades, explosive shells, rifle butts)
Loss of the value of chivalry as a standard of courage.
Reformation catholic church- the emergence of Protestantism (officially since 1555 (1517))
In the Czech Republic - Jan Hus. Hussite wars 1419-34 (Jan Zizka)
In Germany - in 1517. Martin Luther put forward the "95 Theses" appeal, condemning indulgence, submission to the Rhys Pope, and the enrichment of churches. Peasant support for him resulted in the peasant war of 1524-26. against serfdom, but not for the elimination of feudal order, but for personal freedom (Thomas Münzer);
1526 - The German Reichstag passed a law on the right of princes to choose religion. In 1529. the law was canceled, the signing of "Protestation" by 5 princes and a number of cities.
Since 1555 the princes received the right from the Pope to choose the religion of the Lutherans.
In Switzerland - Jean Calvin; Geneva is Protestant Rome.
Calvinism. In England, Henry VIII separated the church from Rome (the Church of England). In Denmark and Sweden, the reformation was carried out by kings with the support of the nobles.
In France, the Huguenots. To fight the Protestants in 1540. the Jesuit order ("Society of Jesus") was created; the founder is the Spanish nobleman Ignatius Loyola.
Renaissance (Renaissance).
The origins of the Renaissance: antique ( Ancient Greece and Rome) art and scientific thought Central Asia... The revival began in Italy.
Literature: Shakespeare (Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet), Miguel de Cervantes (Don Quixote), Lope de Vega (1562-1635)
Humanist Writers: Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) - "Book of Songs", "Letters in Verse"
Thorny Salutati (1331-1406)
Thomas More (1478-1535) - "The Golden Book of the Best State Organization and the New Island of Utopia"; "Utopia" is a non-existent place
Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) - "Gargantua and Pantagruel"
Fine arts: Leonardo da Vinci - artist, poet, architect, sculptor, musician, engineer-inventor; called painting "the princess of the arts" ("Madonna and Child", wall painting "The Last Vespers");
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) "Sistine Madonna"
Michelangelo Buonarroti - sculptor, painter, architect, military engineer, poet (David); from 1546 he supervised the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral and the Capitol in Rome
Albrecht Durer (German) - artist, engineer, architect, expert in ancient languages, poet (prints, portraits)
Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch) - portrait, landscape, still life ("The Return of the Prodigal Son")
Diego Velazquez (Spanish) - "Painter of Truth" ("Spinners")
El Greco (Spanish) - The Holy Family, Portrait of an Unknown
Science: N. Copernicus (1473-43) proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun and its axis ( heliocentric system) in the book "On the Circulation of the Celestial Spheres" (1543); in 1616 the Inquisition banned the teachings of Copernicus
D. Bruno (1548-1600) in his work "The Philosophy of Scream" put forward the theory of the infinity of the world; burned at the stake by the Inquisition; on the grave it is written: "He demanded free thought for all peoples, and was executed for this demand" ("He raised his voice for freedom of thought for all peoples and went to death for this freedom")
G. Galileo (1564-1642) built the first telescope, discovered the mountains on the moon, the moons of Jupiter, sunspots and the phases of Venus; under the torture of the Inquisition, he was forced to abandon his views; rehabilitated in the present. time of John Paul II.
John Locke developed the doctrine of the human right to life, liberty and property; created the doctrine of the division of state power into legislative and executive.
Inventions: windmill, lathe, pump, use coal, method of explosion in ore mining, from ser. XVI century typography.
Netherlands
State on the territory of modern. Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland and parts of France; consisted of 17 provinces; center - Antwerp; depending on Spain. "Grassroots lands"
1566 - the uprising against Spanish rule coincided with the struggle for the reform of the church (Protestantism); an attempt to suppress the uprising by the Spanish Duke of Alba "gueuze" ("ragamuffins") - partisans.
1572 - the proclamation of the ruler of the northern territories of William of Orange (the south remained with Spain).
1573 - Alba left the Netherlands; only the south of the country remained for Spain.
1579 - Creation of the "Utrecht Union" (unification of 7 provinces) to fight the Spaniards; Dutch Republic.
1609 - recognition by Spain of the independence of the Dutch Republic; the capital is Amsterdam; the first bourgeois state.
1652 - Cape Colony in South Africa.
England
XVI century for England, this is a reformation, the strengthening of absolutism and the establishment of domination at sea.
Henry VIII (Tudor) subordinated the whole country to a single center - London (absolutist monarchy), reformed the church - proclaimed himself the head of the church and confiscated 2/3 of the church lands.
His daughter Maria (1553-58) tried to carry out the counter-reformation (the return of the country to Catholicism).
1554 - restoration of the power of the Pope in England.
Mary's repressive policy brought Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to the throne. Her main task is to strengthen the unity of England and the struggle for supremacy at sea. In 1588. The English fleet defeated the "Invincible Armada" of Spain.
With the death of Elizabeth, the Tudor dynasty ended. Jacob VI - Stewart.
1600g. - opening of the first exchange.
1628 - Parliament secured the signing of the Bill of Rights and the Petition of Rights by the king, prohibiting the introduction of new taxes and imprisonment without trial; dispersal of parliament - the establishment of the absolute power of the king.
November 3, 1640 - the convocation of parliament - the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution; the dissolution of the extraordinary courts and the "Privy Council" of the king, the restriction of the ecclesiastical court, the release of political prisoners.
1641 - "The Great Remontstration" - a list of abuses of the king and the political demands of parliament.
1642 - civil war between supporters of the monarchy and the bourgeoisie.
1643 - the conclusion of an alliance between the English parliament and Scotland.
07/14/1645 - Battle of Naseby (defeat of the king's army).
1649 - the abolition of royal power (execution of Charles I); 05/19/1649 the proclamation of the republic; unicameral parliament; the head of the executive branch (Council of State) - Oliver Cromwell; the conquest of Scotland and Ireland.
1653 - dispersal of parliament; Cromwell is Lord Protector (Dictator).
1660 - restoration of the monarchy (Charles II).
1685 - King James II tried to restore Catholicism.
1688 - the palace coup "Glorious Revolution" by William of Orange (Holland) - the overthrow of James II, the adoption of the "Declaration of Rights", England - a limited monarchy.
1701-14gg. - war with France for the Spanish throne; capture of Gibraltar.
1707 - Union of England and Scotland - Great Britain.
since 1716 - Parliament's term of office is 6 years.
XVIII century - "Second Hundred Years War" - the confrontation between England and France.
XVIII century - industrial revolution - transition from manual to machine labor.
1733 - John Kay invented the flying shuttle.
1765 - James Hargreaves invented the "Jenny" intermittent spinning wheel; D. Whitet - a steam engine.
1767 E. Cartwright invented the mechanical loom. Abraham Derby invented new methods of casting iron, Abraham Derby - his son introduced blast furnace smelting on coke, Abraham Derby - grandson - in 1779. built a bridge from cast iron parts.
1774 D. Wilkinson invented the lathe.
1788 - the first cast iron pipes.
1814 - steam locomotive D. Stephenson.
"Luddites" - the labor movement that destroyed the machines, seeing in them the cause of their troubles.
France
II sex. XVI century - “Rise of the crocans” (“rodents”) - 40 thousand peasants opposed the arbitrariness of tax farmers and officials.
The states-general (parliament) did not play such a role in France as in England. Since 1614, they have not been convened throughout the 17th century. There were 17 regional parliaments overseeing the courts. The Paris Parliament had a great influence, it controlled 1/3 of the country and could appoint a regent, in case of a minority of the heir.
In France, Protestantism (Huguenots) spread in the south, while the north (king) remained Catholic. The massacre of the Huguenots organized by the supporter of the king, the Duke de Guise, became the cause of the Religious War (1562-98 - 32 years).
08.24.1572 - "St. Bartholomew's Night" (mass murder of the Huguenots). Prohibition of Protestantism.
1589 - assassination of King Henry III. On the throne, the leader of the Protestants - Henry of Navarre - Henry IV (Bourbon dynasty), who converted to Catholicism. Strengthening the sole authority.
1598 - Edict of Nantes (state religion - Catholicism, Huguenots have the right of religion; religious truce).
1610-43gg - the reign of Louis XIII and the cardinal (first minister) Richelieu - the establishment of the sole authority of the king.
1643-1715 - Louis XIV ("The State is me") - an absolute monarchy; cardinal and first minister Mazarin.
1756-63gg. - Seven-year war between England and France for the Austrian inheritance and colonies; 1763 - ousting France from Canada.
05/04/1789 - Convocation of the States General by Louis XVI in order to raise taxes.
06/17/1789 deputies from the 3rd estate established a new parliament - the National (Constituent) Assembly.
07/14/1789 - the taking of the Bastille; the king recognized the legality of the Constituent Assembly; power in the hands of the Paris Commune; a constitutional monarchy; The French Revolution. Parties: royalists - supporters of the monarchy; the Girondins are moderate liberals, supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Jacobins are supporters of the republic.
1789 - Adoption of the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights; liquidation of feudal relations; confiscation of land from the church.
September 1791 - adoption of the Constitution; aggression by Austria, Spain and Great Britain.
08/10/1792 - uprising in Paris; elections to the new parliament - National Convention.
09/21/1792 France is a republic.
Rouget de Lisle wrote the "Battle Song of the Rhine Army", which is still the anthem of France.
21.01.1793 - the execution of the king.
2.06.1793 - as a result of the uprising, power passed from the Girondins to the Jacobins; Public Safety Committee - Robespierre; the establishment of a revolutionary dictatorship.
1793 - the adoption of a new Constitution, which consolidated the abolition of feudal relations; the law "On suspicious persons".
1794 - expulsion of the invaders from the country.
07/27/1794 -the overthrow of the dictatorship of the Jacobins; execution of Robespierre.
1795 - new Constitution; the Girondins are in power; executive branch - Directory (1795-99).
11/19/1799 - coup d'etat; power in the hands of 3 consuls headed by Napoleon; elimination of all democratic freedoms
Russia
The unification of the Russian lands continued under Vasily III (1505-33). Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan principality were annexed.
20-20s XVI century - creation of a single centralized state-va. Moscow becomes the capital of the Russian state.
Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84) - the first Russian tsar, crowned by Metropolitan Macarius in 1547.
1547 - Chosen Rada - unofficial government.
1549 - convocation of the Zemsky Sobor - the first representative meeting; Russia is an estate-representative monarchy.
1550 - the new Code of Laws limited the rights of the boyars, established self-government bodies.
1552 - the conquest of the Kazan Khanate.
1556 - the conquest of the Astrakhan Khanate.
1582 - the conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
1558-83 - The Livonian War - the loss of almost the entire Baltic coast.
1565-72 - oprichnina - a special royal possession, on which the nobles loyal to the king settled; oprichniki - the Tsar's personal guard, a punitive body against the boyars (Malyuta Skuratov).
1584-98gg - the reign of the son of Ivan the Terrible Fyodor (the last of the Rurikids; the dynasty ruled for 700 years).
1598 - The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov as tsar.
1605 - death of Godunov; the beginning of the Troubles; False Dmitry I (monk Grigory Otrepiev) entered Moscow at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian army.
1606-10gg - Tsar - boyar Vasily Shuisky.
1608 - False Dmitry II ("Tushino thief").
1609 - the capture of Moscow by the Polish troops.
1611-12 - the people's militia led by the townspeople headman Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky; liberation of Moscow.
1613 - The Zemsky Sobor elected the Tsar - 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (the Romanov dynasty until 1917).
1645-76 - the board of Alexei Mikhailovich.
1649 - "Cathedral Code" destroyed feudal fragmentation, legalized serfdom (abolished the right to transfer peasants from one owner to another), noble lands turned into a fiefdom (inheritance law).
1667-71 - S. Razin's uprising.
In the XVII century. manufactories appeared in Russia (the first in ferrous metallurgy), monetary quitrent. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan played an important role in foreign trade, the British and Dutch acted as intermediaries in foreign trade. - "New Trade Code", which prohibits foreigners from doing retail trade on the domestic market, the beginning of the struggle to turn Russia into a strong maritime power.
1696-1725 - on the throne Peter I.
1695-96gg - unsuccessful Azov campaign; start of construction of ships.
1700-21gg. - Northern war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.
16.05.1703 - the beginning of the construction of St. Petersburg, from 1712. - capital of Russia.
1707-09gg. - peasant war led by K. Bulavin.
1709 - Battle of Poltava - defeat of the Swedish army.
1714 - Battle of Gangut - defeat of the Swedish fleet; expedition to the Khiva Khanate.
since 1721 Peter I - Emperor; absolute monarchy.
1721 - the end of the Northern War (Peace of Nishtad; Finland).
Reforms: recruiting peasants into the army and their lifelong service; 1708 - division of the state into provinces;
1711 - the Senate was introduced instead of the Boyar Duma; 1715 - Maritime Academy; 1718-20gg - abolition of orders, introduction of collegia;
1719 - Kunstkamera (museum); 1721 - the subordination of the church to the Synod, at the head of the church is not the metropolitan, but the patriarch;
1722 - "Table of Ranks" - military and secular positions; 1725 - Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
1725-27. - on the throne Catherine I (Peter's wife) with the support of Menshikov; the establishment of the Supreme Privy Council, limiting the power of the Empress.
1727-30gg. - the reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter II.
1730-40gg. - reign of Peter I's niece - Anna Ioanovna; Biron.
1741-61. - the reign of the daughter of Peter I - Elizabeth.
1761-62. - reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter III; removed by his wife - Catherine II.
1762-96 - Catherine II; strengthening of the privileges of the nobles, strengthening of serfdom.
1773-75 - peasant war led by E. Pugachev.
1796-1800 - the reign of Paul I.
Since 1725 until 1800 there were 8 representatives of the Romanov dynasty on the throne.
Foreign policy: 1654 - joining part of Ukraine and Belarus to Russia; end XVI - XVIII centuries - the development of Siberia (at the end of the 17th century the Russian population of Siberia - 150 thousand people); 1731. - annexation of a part of Kazakhstan; 1756-63gg - participation in the Seven Years War with Prussia; 1768-74 - Russian-Turkish war (victory of Russia; Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy peace); 1783 - annexation of the Crimea, 1787-91. - Russian-Turkish war (Yasin peace), 1788-90. - War with Sweden (Peace of Revel).
The basic principle foreign policy: expansion of borders at the expense of adjacent territories.
In the II half of the XVIII century. Signs of capitalism began to appear in Russia.
1763 - prohibition of Europeans to move to the west.
1765 - organization "Sons of Freedom" against colonial dependence.
1774 - representatives of 13 states gathered in Philadelphia for the 1st Continental Congress - refusal to obey the laws of the metropolis.
1775 - War of Independence; convocation in Philadelphia of the II Continental Congress - the creation of the army (D. Washington).
4.07.1776 - adoption of the "Declaration of Independence" (Thomas Jefferson); education in the United States.
France, Spain and Russia were interested in weakening England, so they helped the United States.
1782 - the end of the war; 3.09.1763 an armistice signed in Paris; England recognized the independence of the United States.
1787 - the adoption by the Constituent Convention (Parliament: 55 representatives from 13 states) of the US Constitution, which did not abolish slavery; USA is a presidential republic; the term of office of the president is 4 years; Congress (parliament) consists of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house).
1789 - I President - D. Washington
Germany
Until the XVI century. an international trade route passed through Germany, which lost its importance due to the movement of sea trade routes to the Atlantic Ocean. The country ranked first in the world for copper production.
Feudal fragmentation (more than 300 principalities). 1618-48gg. - The Thirty Years War divided Europe into 2 blocks: I - the union of Austria, Spain and the German Catholic principalities.
II - the union of France, Denmark, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities.
Germany is an "empire without subjects", "an empire without power." “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation” until 1806.
In the II floor. XVI century France, Sweden and Turkey were hostile to Germany I.
1663 - For the first time in history, the German principalities created a national liberation army to resist Turkey.
Austria- the Habsburg dynasty; the capital is Vienna.
Prussia- was formed in 1701. on the site of the Brandenburg principality; Frederick I the capital is Berlin; at the end of the 18th century. - 3rd country in Europe in terms of territory, 4th - in terms of the size of the army under Frederick II (1740-86) - absolutist monarchy
Countries of Asia
India
1525-26 - the conquest of the Delhi Sultanate (Lodiev dynasty) by Babur (in the battle of Panipat, 12 thousand army of Babur defeated 100 thousand army of Sultan Ibrahim Lodiy); the empire of the Great Mughals (Baburids) existed for 332 years; Babur ruled for 3 years
1530 - the death of Babur; ruler of India, Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar son of Babur - Humayun
1540-54gg. - on the Indian throne Sherkhan Sur - the leader of the Afghan tribes
1555 - Humayun regained the Indian throne
1556-1605 - the board of Akbarshah ("Great Akbar"); streamlined the tax system, expanded the irrigation system, established domestic and foreign trade; divided the state into 15 provinces; expanded the boundaries, in 1559. defeated the Sur dynasty; achieved prosperity
1627-58 - the reign of Shah Jahan; intensification of the struggle for the throne
1658-1707 - the board of Aurangzeb; maximum boundaries; peak of power; persecution of representatives of non-Islamic religions; the struggle for national independence (Sikhs and Marathi (Shivozhi)); the beginning of the decline of the state
1666-72 uprising against the Baburids; suppressed by Aurangzeb
1709 - the uprising in the province of Kandahar led by the head of the Afghan tribe Gilzai Mir-Weyskhan; Kandahar branch
1757 - the capture of Bengal by England (drove out the French); the beginning of the colonization of India; East Indian campaign activities
Culture: under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra and the Jami mosque were built; flourishing of painting and miniature
China
XVI century - the political fragmentation of the state of Min; economic decline
1618 - the ruler of Manchuria Nurkhatsi began a campaign against China
1636 - the heir of Nurkhatsi - Abakhai declared himself emperor; Qing dynasty (clear, transparent) until 1912
1643 - the capture of Beijing by the rebels; Li Tzu-cheng - Emperor Zhang Hsien-chung in the south-west of China created an independent state
1644 - the imperial army (U San-gua) agrees to become a vassal of Manchuria; end of the Ming dynasty; defeat of Li Tzu-cheng and Chang San-chung
1637 - seizure of Korea
1689 - Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia (China seized the left bank of the Amur)
1757 - a decree on the conduct of foreign trade only under the control of the state through the port of Guangzhou (closure of the country, an attempt to protect against enslavement by European countries)
1758 - the conquest of the Dzungar (Oirat) Khanate; later all Mongolia and Kashgar
II sex. XVII century - Burma and Vietnam are vassals. Of China
1792 - Nepal - vassal of China
In its policy of conquest, China relied on the assistance of Western European countries. But since 1757. all ports, except for Guangzhou, closed for Europeans
Japan
In the beginning. XVI century Japan split into a number of small states
1543 - Portuguese merchant Mendish Pinto imported firearms to Japan; spread of Christianity.
1552 - the emergence of the Spaniards, Dutch and British
1573 - Oda Nobunaga united half of the provinces, overthrowing the Aksikaga shogun; carried out reforms that promote economic development
1582 - murder of Oda Nobunaga; ruler Toyotomi Hidayoshi; founded Osaka
1587 - the expulsion of Catholic missionaries, only Portuguese merchants remained
1592 - unsuccessful attack on Korea
1598 - death of Toyotomi Hidayoshi; shogun - Tokugawa Iayasu; built the city of Edo (modern Tokyo)
1603 - 1867 - reign of the III dynasty of shoguns - Tokugawa; completed the unification of the country
1614 - the prohibition of Christianity; a policy of economic self-isolation in order to protect against colonization by European countries
1636 - the last to be expelled were the Portuguese (more than 200 years of isolation)
1716-45 - Board of Yoshimune Tokugawa; encouraged the development of new lands, introduced the “Decree of 100 points” regulating the life of the country; the beginning of the formation of capitalist relations
Ottoman Empire
Administrative structure: the empire consisted of provinces ruled by the wali, the provinces were divided into sanjaks ruled by the sanjakbey
Military-feudal land tenure system: Zeamet - large land grant, owner - loan (bey)
Timar - small land grant, owner - timariot (sipah)
Continuation of the aggressive policy:
1514 - Selim I defeated the Iranian army of Ismail Safavi
1516 - the capture of Syria and Palestine
1517 - the capture of Cairo (Egypt), the possessions of the Ottomans extended on 3 continents: Asia, Europe, Africa
1579 - the uprising of the peasants led by Sheikh Jalal; since then, all the rebels were called "jalalists", and the uprisings themselves - "jalalism"
1526 - revolt led by Kalandar
1610 - "Firman of Justice" - the return to the peasants for a small fee of the lands abandoned during the famine
The ruin of the peasants led to the fall of agriculture in the country. The crisis of the military-fief system of land tenure led to the decline of the military power of the Ottomans. Empire opens markets for European states - France, England
Russian-Turkish wars: 1768-74, 1787-91
Ser. XVIII century - movement "Westernism" - development of social, cultural and spiritual life firman - special decree of sultan ozin - non-Muslim
Iran
At the end. XV century Iran was divided into several territories, not subordinate to the central authority. Political fragmentation.
1500-01y. Ismal I Safavi conquered a number of territories in 1502. declared himself a shahinshah (1502-24). State of the Safavids. Ter-riya: Iran, Azerbaijan, part of Armenia, Afkanistan, part of Iraq, etc. The capital is Tabriz (Azerbaijan). Replaced suyurgal with tiyulni.
1587-1629 - the reign of Shah Abbas I - the pinnacle of development. Transfer of the capital to Isfahan (Iran). Tax reform. Modernization of the army with the help of British specialists (guns and firearms).
1602 - victory in the war with Turkey
Expulsion of the Portuguese from about. Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. The East India Campaign received benefits in trade with Iran.
The period of Safavid rule - the "golden age" of Iranian art
Beginning XVIII century. - economic crisis caused by a decrease in state. lands and taxes from them.
1709 - Kandahar branch
1710 - the decree of Sultan-Hussein not to leave the land to the peasants
1722 - Mir-Mahmud, at the head of the Afghan army, captured the capital; the period of the Afghan conquest; Safavids formally power
1730 - commander Tahmasp II (the last Shah of the Safavids) Nadir (from the Turkmen tribe Afshar) freed Iran from Afghans
1736 - overthrow of the Safavids; Nadir - Shah of Iran
1747 - murder of Nadir Shah as a result of civil strife; disintegration of the state; in Iran, the struggle between the Zend and Qajar tribes
1758 - victory of the Zend tribe; Kerim Khan Zend (1758-79)
1796 - power is in the hands of the Qajars; Agha-Mhammed - founder of the Qajar dynasty (existed until 1925; 129 years)
II stage (I floor. - 60s biennium XIXv.)
1847 - economic crisis in European countries
United Kingdom - the first industrial country in the world; "Mistress of the seas", "industrial workshop of the world"
During this period, the industrial revolution ended.
1825 - the first in the world Railway(in 1830 the length of the railway in the world was 195 km, of which in Great Britain - 91 km) the world's first economic crisis
40s of the XIX century. - application in agricultural machines and chemicals. fertilizers
1825 - the law prohibiting strikes
1832 - the first parliamentary reform, which expanded the rights of the bourgeoisie;
the new parliament established an 8-hour working day for children under 13 and banned the labor of children under 9
1837-1900 - the reign of Queen Victoria (63 years); "Age of Victoria"
1867 - the second parliamentary reform granted the right to vote to all men over the age of 21 who own a home
Colonial policy: the capture of Gibraltar (exit from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Sea), Aden (from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean),
Cape Town (Cape Good hope in South Africa), Singapore (Indian Doors), Hong Kong (China Doors)
The basic principle: "Divide and conquer!"; 1857. - the beginning of the capture of India (Bengal)
"White" colonies (inhabited by immigrants from Europe): Canada (since 1867 dominion), Australia, New Zealand
France
1804 - Napoleon - Emperor of France; I empire (1804-14)
1805 - the beginning of the wars of conquest:
1805 - the capture of Vienna - the capital of Austria
1805 - Battle of Trafalgar: the destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by the British;
economic (continental) blockade of England
2.12.1806 - the battle of Austerlitz - the defeat of the Austro-Russian army; end of the "Holy Roman Empire"
1806 - the capture of Berlin - the capital of Prussia
1812 - invasion of Russia: 09/07/1812 - Battle of Borodino (the Russian army retreated, surrendering Moscow (Kutuzov));
Napoleon's army collapsed; the beginning of the collapse of the Empire
end 1812 - Napoleon's attempt to create a new army; anti-Napoleonic coalition: Russia, England, Prussia, Austria
1813 - Battle of Leipzig - the coalition army defeated the French.
1814 - the capture of Paris by the coalition army; the end of the Empire; Napoleon was exiled to Fr. Elbe;
1814 - restoration of the Bourbons (Louis XVIII); adoption of the Constitution; the demand of the nobles to return the old order
1815 - seizure of power by Napoleon (100 days)
06/18/1815 - Battle of Waterloo: defeat by the armies of Prussia and Russia of the French
10.1814-06.1815 - Congress of Vienna (Russia, Austria, England, Prussia, Spain, Sweden, Portugal and France)
Decisions: France returns to borders as of 1789; reparations 700 million francs
England gets about. Malta and former colonies Holland - about. Ceylon, Cape Colony in southern Africa;
Russia - most of Poland;
Germany united in the German Confederation (now 39 instead of 200), headed by Austria;
Rhineland, Westphalia and the western lands of Poland are annexed to Prussia; Austria fortified in Eastern Italy;
Belgium was annexed to Holland;
Switzerland regained its independence and declared itself an eternally neutral state;
Monarchy restored in Spain
Creation of the "Holy Alliance" by Austria, Russia and Prussia to combat the revolutionary movement in Europe
March 1815 - the return of power to Louis XVIII; persecution of Napoleon's supporters
July 1830 - dissolution of parliament; restriction of electoral rights; the uprising in Paris; the escape of King Charles X; on the throne of Louis Philippe
Orleans - July Monarchy; the adoption of a new constitution that declared freedom of speech, press and assembly, lowered the age and property qualifications for voters, and increased the role of parliament
1830 - capture of Algeria
1831 - suppression of the uprising of the weavers in Lyon, demanding higher wages
1834 - the suppression of the II uprising of the weavers in Lyon, who demanded the establishment of a republic and the expansion of electoral rights
1845 and 1847 - drought
1847 - economic crisis in Europe
02/23/1848 - the beginning of the revolution in France
02/25/1848 - the declaration of France as a presidential republic; The Constitution of the II Republic proclaimed freedom of speech and the conduct of strikes, established a 10-11-hour working day; a decree was issued on providing workers with work; organization of "National Workshops" for the unemployed
December 1848 - election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I's nephew) as president
1851 - coup d'état organized by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
2.12.1852 -establishment of the Second Empire in France; Emperor Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
Germany
Medieval feudal-absolutist orders became the main reason for the revolutionary situation. The moderate bourgeoisie led the revolution and demanded a constitutional monarchy. The driving force was the petty and middle bourgeoisie, the workers, the progressive intelligentsia
1848 - the adoption of the Constitution in Prussia; the revolutionary struggle that engulfed the scattered German states did not yield results
Fichte - the ideologist of the unification of Germany
1866 - the formation of the North German Union led by Prussia (22 states);
President of the Union - King of Prussia, Bundeskanzler - Otto von Bismarck (developed the Constitution of the Union)
1870-71 - Franco-Prussian War; victory of Prussia
1871 - the unification of Germany around Prussia; Prussian King Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany
Italy
1848-49 - Republic in Rome; suppressed by the French army
Giuseppe Mazzini - the leader of the Roman republicans, created the organization "Young Italy"
Lombardy and Venice were part of Austria-Hungary, Parma, Modena and Tuscany under the rule of the Habsburgs
The process of the unification of Italy took place around the Sardinian kingdom as the most powerful among the Italian states.
Camillo Benso Cavour - Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a supporter of moderate reforms and a constitutional monarchy.
Persuaded France to help Sardinia in the fight against Austria-Hungary (1859)
1860 - Zhduseppe Garibaldi captured Palermo (Sicily) and Naples
1861 - the proclamation of the Italian kingdom; King Victor-Emanuel II; a constitutional monarchy
1866 - the accession of Venice; 1870 - Rome
Austro-hungary was formed in 1867.
Switzerland
By the decision of the Congress of Vienna, Switzerland is the Union of Independent States (confederation), consisting of 22 cantonal states. Revolution of 1848 was reflected in the Constitution, which strengthened the central government
1863 - establishment of the Committee for International Assistance to the Wounded
1864 - signing of the international convention on the establishment of the Red Cross Society
1865 -after the signing in Paris of the agreement on the formation of the International Union of Telegraphists, in Bern created
International Telegraph Bureau
Russia
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I
40s - 90s XIX century. - industrial Revolution
1801-25 - the reign of Alexander I; the establishment of a police regime in the country ("arakcheevschina")
1816 - the creation of a revolutionary circle of officer youth "Union of Salvation", transformed in 1818 into the "Union of Welfare"
1821-22 - the dissolution of the Union of Prosperity; creation of the Southern (Ukraine; leader P.I. Pestel) and Northern (St. Petersburg; leader N.M. Muravyov) societies;
developed draft constitutions: Pestel - the proclamation of the republic ("Russian Truth")
Muravyov - constitutional monarchy, 2-chamber People's Veche
12/14/1825 - the uprising of the Decembrists (military coup) on the Senate Square on the day of the coronation of Nicholas I; suppressed
1825-55 - the reign of Nicholas I (“gendarme of Europe”); increased reaction; censorship creation of the Third Department of the Imperial Chancellery to combat the revolutionary movement (A.H. Benckendorff)
1828-29. - Russian-Turkish war
20s - 30s XIX century. - the activities of revolutionary circles: "Literary Society of the 11th number" Belinsky, the circle of Herzen and Ogarev
40s XIX century - Slavophiles - saw a special path of development of Russia in the development of peasant communities (Khomyakov, brothers Aksakov), Westerners - the constitutional system (Granovsky, Panaev, Botkin)
1845 - "Petrashevtsy" (M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky) - socialists-utopians
02/19/1861 - Alexander II signed a decree abolishing serfdom. The decree declared the peasants free,
the land was purchased for a 49-year installment plan. "Cut" - a surplus of land in excess of the norm
Military (1862), education (1863) zemstvo and judicial (1864), city (1870) reforms
Foreign policy: 1801 - Adoption Eastern Georgia to Russian citizenship; 1804-13gg. - War with Iran for the Caucasus (Peace of Gulistan); 1806. - Russian-Turkish war (conquest of Bessarabia); 1828. - entry of Eastern Armenia and Northern Azerbaijan; 1834-59 = Shamil's struggle for the independence of Dagestan, Chechnya and Adygea;
1864 - subordination of the entire Caucasus; 1839 - an attack on the Khiva Khanate (Perovsky); 1855 - Kurile Islands;
1853-56 - Russia lost in the Crimean War to Turkey (prohibition of the maintenance of the navy on the Black Sea and at the mouth of the Danube, transfer part of Bessarabia to Romania) America
1812-14 - the war of England against the USA; capture of the capital
Acquisition of Louisiana from France, in 1822. - Spain has Florida, during the war with Mexico - part of its territory
30s XIX century - the beginning of the industrial revolution
The American way of agricultural development is farming. Types of business: in the north - with the use of machines and chemicals. fertilizers
in the south - plantations with the use of slaves
Abolitionists - supporters of the abolition of slavery
Con. 50s XIX century. - uprising in Virginia by John Brown
Political parties in the United States: Republicans (1854; supporters of the abolition of slavery; A. Lincoln) and Democrats (1828; supporters of slavery)
1860 - Lincoln - President; demanded the gradual abolition of slavery
02.1861 - 6 southern states announced the creation of the Southern Confederation (capital Richmond)
1861-65 - Civil War in the USA (North - South); victory of the north
1.01.1863 - decree on the abolition of slavery
1865 - the murder of Lincoln
Homestead Act - Free Slave Plots
1866 - amendments to the Constitution on equal civil and political rights of black and white
1867 - Purchase from Russia Alaska
Foreign policy is based on the "Monroe Doctrine" - "America for Americans" (appropriating the wealth of South America and excluding Europeans)
Haiti- the island was discovered by Columbus, belonged to France; in 1804. - as a result of the uprising (Toussaint Louverture) proclaimed
First Republic in Latin America
Mexico- 1810-11. - the uprising against the Spanish colonialists (Miguel Hidalgo);
Jose Maria Morelos continued to fight until 1815
The struggle is supported by the landlords
1821 (28) independence of Mexico; abolition of slavery
Venezuela- 1819 - gaining independence (Simon Bolivar turned to European countries for help;
I president; dreamed of a confederation of countries liberated from Spanish rule); providing assistance to the rebels of New Granada; unification of Venezuela and New Granada - New (Great) Colombia
1830 - Simon Bolivar removed from the presidency
Argentina- 1810 - independence of Argentina (General Jose San Martin)
1826 - proclamation of the Republic
Chile- Argentine rebels crossed the Andes and provided assistance to the Chilean rebels; 1817 - declaration of independence
Peru- 1820 - the troops of San Mrtin (Argentina) crossed the sea to Peru
1821 - taking the capital of Lima; declaration of independence
Ecuador- 1822
Bolivia- 1823-24. - the army of Bolivar (Venezuela) provided assistance to the rebels of Upper Peru.
1825 - Republic of Bolivia (in honor of Bolivar)
Uruguay- 1830
Cuba- 1869 - 78gg. - struggle for independence
Brazil- the only Portuguese colony South America; in 1822. gained independence; monarchy, did not abolish slavery
By 1830, Latin America had freed itself from the colonialists, republics were proclaimed in all countries except Brazil.
India
The British government established the "Council for the Supervision of Indian Affairs", which determines the colonial policy of the kingdom.
The Governor of the East India Campaign in Calcutta was appointed by the Governor General of India.
The sepoys are a mercenary army from local population led by the British
1843 - The East Indian campaign subdued the Sindh region. India
1857-59. - the uprising of the sepoys; started in Bengal; the reason was the introduction of rifled guns (the shells for them were in a paper wrapper, greased with pork or cow fat); brutally suppressed, the rebels forced Baburid Bahadur Shah II (the last of the Baburids) to sign an appeal to the people to unite, Princess Lakshmi Bai proclaimed the independence of her principality Jansi Tanti ...........
1. Name the reasons and consequences of the Great Nations Migration. What states have developed in Europe?
2. How did Islam come about and what are the foundations of its teaching?
3. What were the reasons Arab conquests and the consequences of the formation of the Arab Caliphate?
Why did the Caliphate collapse?
5. What was the flourishing of Arab culture?
6. Why was the Eastern Roman Empire preserved? What changes took place in Byzantium during the Middle Ages? F Dante characterization state system Byzantium.
8. What events are associated with the activities of the rulers of the Frankish state Karl Martsll and Charlemagne?
9. Why did it arise and how it disintegrated Frankish empire? What were the reasons for the fragmentation?
10. What is feudalism, the "feudal ladder"?
11. Tell us about the rights and responsibilities of the three feudal estates.
12. List the reasons for the emergence of cities as centers of crafts and trade. Tell us about the struggle between the cities and the lords.
13. Describe relationships within cities. What was the significance of medieval cities?
14. How did the split in the Christian church come about?
15. Tell us about the structure and role of the Catholic Church in the history of the Middle Ages.
16. Describe the main events in the history of Europe during the late Middle Ages. What changes were taking place during that period in society?
17. What are centralized states and how did they develop in England and France?
18. Describe the main achievements of medieval culture in Western Europe,
19. How did it come about Old Russian state? Describe the main directions of the policy of the first Russian princes.
$). What is the role of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich in the history of Russia? What is the meaning of the Baptism of Rus?
21. What are the features of the state and social structure of Russia?
22. What are the reasons for the disintegration of Russia into separate principalities?
23. Describe the largest Russian principalities and lands. What is the essence of new trends in their development?
24. Give a description of the ancient Russian culture and name its main achievements.
25. How Russia came under Horde yoke? How this yoke was expressed
what are its consequences?
26. How was the attack on Russia from the west reflected?
27. List the prerequisites for the unification of Russia. Describe the course of this
associations.
28. Why did Moscow become the center of the union? What role did Ivan Kalita play in the rise of Moscow?
29. What is the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo?
30. How did the formation of a single state in Russia come to an end? What changes in public administration have occurred with this "."
31. What is the significance of the activities of Ivan 111? Describe his foreign policy. How did Russia free itself from the Horde yoke?
32. What are the main achievements of the Russian culture of Cannes in the 13th - early 16th centuries?
33. List the main events in the history of India, China and Japan and the Middle Pitch. What are the features of the internal development of these countries?
Periodization - the subdivision of the past into periods of time (historical periods, centuries, epochs, etc.) - is one of the difficult problems of historical writing. The need for such a division for the ordering and analysis of historical events is not questioned by researchers. However, the practice of constructing periodization is often controversial. Historians pay attention to a significant proportion of the conventionality of isolating integral fragments of the past.
Widespread in the historical knowledge of the XIX century. the idea of objectivity of time as the environment in which events exist, in the XX century. gave way to ideas about the relativity of time. Historical time is thought of as a complex structure, to a large extent "established" by events or groups of events of the past. The very possibility of periodization is based on a rather conventional vision of history as continuous and unified. Based on the idea of the generality of the process of human development, it is possible to single out any stages in it, to compare one era with another.
For the study of history, it is important not only to date, to correlate what happened with a certain moment in time, but also to outline the boundaries of the periods when the typical similarity of historical phenomena was manifested among themselves.
Based on this similarity, historical periods can be distinguished, for example, the Renaissance or the Age of Enlightenment, etc.
In cultures, mythology and religions of the past, there were different ways of periodizing history, for example, dividing the past by analogy with the seasons of the year, with the ages of a person. Greek poet Hesiod in the 7th century. BC NS. wrote about four past centuries - gold, silver, bronze and iron. Periodization in accordance with generations, political reigns, dynasties belongs to the most ancient ways of ordering history.
In the Middle Ages in the West, in the writings of the Church Fathers, two large systems periodization of world history. One linked the past and present of humanity with the four monarchies. According to this system, developed in the 4th century. Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome of Stridon on the basis of the Old Testament "Book of the Prophet Daniel", four empires have changed in human history. The Roman Empire was seen as the last state on earth, after which the end of history would come. The successive change of monarchies reflected the Divine plan, according to which people went to political and religious unity. In the XI-XII centuries. German historians substantiated the theory of “the transfer of monarchy, which was widespread in the medieval West. According to this concept, after the death of the Roman Empire. God transferred the power of the Roman emperors, first to Charlemagne (and the State of the Franks), and then to the German Empire.
Most medieval historians preferred the six-age periodization of history as described by Aurelius Augustine. The centuries that have passed since the creation of the world were likened to the ages of man and the days of Creation. The sixth and last age - the old age of mankind - began from the time of the birth of Christ. For the early chroniclers, each day of Creation corresponded to a thousand years in history; the sixth century was to end with the end of the world and the "seventh day of the eternal Sabbath," the day of the resurrection from the dead. On this basis, the end of the world was expected in Europe in 1000; after that date historians had to adjust the calculations of the duration of each age of the world.
The concept of a historical era, which is used at the present time, arose relatively recently. It was affirmed in the context of the culture of the Renaissance and the Reformation, at a time when the influence of Christian eschatology and expectations of the imminent end of the world began to weaken in society.
Humanists proposed such a vision of history, according to which the most important milestone separating ancient history from the new, was considered the establishment of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The definition of "Middle Ages" entered historiography gradually, as the consciousness of the present moved away from the recent past. In European science, the idea of the Middle Ages was established after at the end of the 17th century. Professor of the German University H. Keller called one of the three books of his textbook "History of the Middle Ages", dividing history into "ancient" - before Constantine the Great, "medieval" - up to 1453, the date of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, the center of Christendom, and " new ”, which came after this date.
The division of history into large epochs contributed to the formation of historical consciousness in a society in which the process of secularization took place, made it possible to distinguish between the past, present and future as qualitatively different periods, and at the same time linked the historical process together. The division of world history into antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times became dominant in the works of historians of the Enlightenment (18th century). Subsequently, this method of periodization, with certain amendments, was consolidated in the professional historiography of the 19th – 20th centuries.
This subdivision scheme is rather arbitrary. There are disputes about the boundaries of each era, so that the boundaries of antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times fluctuate within two or three centuries. In addition, this periodization of world history is based on the history of Europe, the events of which cannot serve as reference points for describing the past of China or India.
From the middle of the XIX century. various economic theories gained popularity, in accordance with which the periodization of world history was carried out. In the XX century. In the Marxist literature, the scheme of five socio-economic formations (primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, communist), dating back to the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, was established. After World War II, the theories of industrialization and modernization proposed in the areas of social and economic history were extended to the historical process as a whole. The World History was seen as a change different types society - pre-industrial (agricultural, traditional), industrial (modernized), post-industrial (informational). In the works of modern historians and social philosophers, much attention is paid to the study of the post-industrial stage of history.
In the XVII century. periodization by centuries originates. This way of dividing time assumes that each century has an inner unity, its own identity.
When one of the characteristics of the era is transferred to the essence of the whole period, generalizations arise ("the age of the Baroque" or "the age of Liberalism"), which are used as metaphors. But they require a certain amount of caution, since they imply that, for example, the whole way of life in the 17th century. characterized by features of the Baroque style. Theories of global eras can also be viewed critically, since they are built on the premise that history - a kind of world whole - is comprehended in relation to what a person learns from his own experience.
Thus, eras and periods are the fruit of the work of historians. These constructions help in the study of the phenomena of the past; they should not be taken literally. As J. Collingwood wrote, everyone has to read about good or bad periods in history, but this or that assessment speaks more about how historians study the past than about the past that they study.
