Who: Semyon Dezhnev, Cossack chieftain, merchant, fur trader.
When: 1648
What I discovered: The first to cross the Bering Strait, which separates Eurasia from North America.
Thus, I found out that Eurasia and North America are two different continents, and that they do not merge.
Who: Thaddeus Bellingshausen, Russian admiral, navigator.
Trips
When: 1820.
What I discovered: Antarctica together with Mikhail Lazarev on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.
He commanded Vostok. Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent.
Also, the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev finally dispelled the myth of the existence of the mythical "Southern continent", which was mistakenly marked on all medieval maps of Europe.
Mariners, including the famous Captain James Cook, searched without any success in Indian Ocean this "southern continent" is more than three hundred and fifty years old, and of course nothing has been found.
Who: Kamchatka Ivan, Cossack and sable hunter.
When: 1650s.
What I discovered: peninsula Kamchatka, named in his honor.
Who: Semyon Chelyuskin, polar explorer, officer of the Russian fleet
When: 1742
What I discovered: the northernmost cape of Eurasia, named after him by Cape Chelyuskin.
Who: Ermak Timofeevich, Cossack chieftain in the service of the Russian Tsar. Yermak's surname is unknown. Possibly Tokmak.
When: 1581-1585
What I discovered: conquered and explored Siberia for the Russian state. For this he entered into a successful armed struggle against the Tatar khans in Siberia.
Ivan Kruzenshtern, officer of the Russian fleet, admiral
When: 1803-1806.
What I discovered: He was the first of the Russian sailors trip around the world together with Yuri Lisyansky on the sloops "Nadezhda" and "Neva". He commanded the "Nadezhda"
Who: Yuri Lisyansky, officer of the Russian fleet, captain
When: 1803-1806.
What I discovered: He was the first of the Russian sailors circumnavigation together with Ivan Kruzenshtern on the sloops "Nadezhda" and "Neva". He was in command of the "Neva".
Who: Peter Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky
When: 1856-57
What I discovered: He was the first of the Europeans to explore the Tien Shan Mountains.
He also later studied a number of areas in Central Asia. For the study of the mountain system and services to science, he received the honorary surname Tien Shansky from the authorities of the Russian Empire, which he had the right to pass on by inheritance.
Who: Vitus Bering
When: 1727-29
What I discovered: The second (after Semyon Dezhnev) and the first of the scientific researchers reached North America, passing through the Bering Strait, thereby confirming its existence. Confirmed that North America and Eurasia are two different continents.
Who: Khabarov Erofei, Cossack, fur trader
When: 1649-53
What I discovered: mastered part of Siberia for the Russians and Of the Far East, studied the land near the Amur River.
Who: Mikhail Lazarev, Russian naval officer.
When: 1820
What I discovered: Antarctica together with Thaddeus Bellingshausen on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.
He commanded "Mirny". Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent. Also, the Russian expedition finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical "Southern continent", which was drawn on medieval European maps, and which sailors were unsuccessfully looking for for four hundred years in a row.
The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers have visited places where a European has never gone before. In the second half XIX century... their efforts were focused on exploring the interior regions of Asia.
Expeditions deep into Asia began Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist.
He made a number of trips to the mountains Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Heading the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in the development of plans for new expeditions.
The activities of others were also associated with the Russian Geographical Society. Russian travelers- NS.
A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.
PA Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled across Northern Manchuria, Sayan and Vitim plateau.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia.
He crossed Mongolia, North China several times, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, and visited Tibet. He died on the way, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, AP Chekhov wrote that such "ascetics are needed like the sun." “Composing the most poetic and cheerful element of society,” he added, “they excite, comfort and ennoble ...
Russian travelers of the 19th century (briefly)
If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types, given by life itself, are beyond any price. "
Overseas Russian travel scientists in the second half of the 19th century.
have become more focused. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the way of life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This direction, which began in the XVIII century. put S.P. Krasheninnikov, was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888).
He made his first travels to Canary Islands and by North Africa... In the early 70s, he visited a number of islands The Pacific, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast).
The Russian scientist won the trust and love of local residents. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and again returned to the "Maclay Coast". The descriptions of the life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania compiled by the scientist were published in a significant part only after his death.
World geographical science in those years it was largely based on the achievements of Russian researchers.
TO late XIX v. the era is over geographical discoveries ... And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.
§The first Russian Marxist V.
G. Plekhanov
§The beginning of Lenin's revolutionary activity
§The beginning of the reign of Alexander I
§Start of the Patriotic War of 1812
§End of the Patriotic War of 1812
Chapter # 8
Lecture number 36
Russian culture in the 19th century
First half of the 19th century
Education and Science
At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed in Russia. Held in 1803 year, the reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town, and a school in every county town. Parish schools were also created in rural areas, where children of different classes were accepted. For driving educational institutions the Ministry of Public Education was created.
V 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, where representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),
The government of Alexander I paid much attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University before that in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Derpt (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).
Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became estates-isolated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "lower classes". During the year they taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic. Children of merchants, artisans, burghers were admitted to the district three-class schools. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of noblemen, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in the seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in grammar schools and universities. Control over universities that were considered sources of "unreliability" was tightened. In 1835, the universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.
The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832 the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855 - the Artillery and Engineering Academy.
Height industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational and technical educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.
The development of domestic science also contributed to the improvement of the education system.
| Biology | |
| Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky | Refuted the statement about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that earth surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo radical changes over time under the influence of natural causes. |
| Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky | He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are conditioned by natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process. |
| Karl Maksimovich Baer | The work "The General Law of the Development of Nature" became a serious step forward in substantiating the concept of the development of living organisms. |
| Medicine | |
| Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov | Professor of the Medical and Surgical Academy, the founder of military field surgery. During the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during an operation, used an immobile plaster cast to treat fractures. |
| Maths | |
| Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Created non-Euclidean geometry |
| Physics | |
| Vasily Petrov | Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - the prototype of the future light bulb. |
| Boris Semenovich Jacobi | Invented the electric motor, electroplating - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing apparatus for the telegraph |
| Emil Christianovich Lenz | He established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented |
| Pavel Lvovich Schilling | Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires |
| Chemistry | |
| Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff | Developed a method for producing glucose. |
| Herman Ivanovich Hess | Discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy as applied to chemical processes |
| Petr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky | Powder metallurgy began |
| Science in production | |
| Pavel Petrovich Anosov | Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel |
| Efim and Miron Cherepanovs, serf mechanics | The first steam railway was built |
| Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov | Created stable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry |
| History | |
| Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin | Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State" |
| Sergey Mikhailovich Soloviev | Wrote "History of Russia from Ancient Times" in 29 volumes |
Russian discoverers and travelers
| Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky | In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials were used as the basis for the published Atlas South Seas». |
| Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev | In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was assigned to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of the then unknown Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russians. For 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, brought valuable collections, observations of the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind |
| Alexander Andreevich Baranov | He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed.It was he who managed to secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America |
| Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky | In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. |
| Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin | In the years 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelskoy, he laid the foundation for the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. |
Art culture
The "Golden Age" of Russian Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national identity... Writers and poets turned to the country's historical past, trying to find answers to modern questions in it.
An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change in artistic directions and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.
The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism... His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, it was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.
The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activity of a historian was creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin... In the story "Martha Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow") traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong Russian state. These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State."
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.
One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism... Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero opposing himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.
Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the establishment of a strong, liberated personality
The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.
In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of his career, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by vital optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These traits were predominant in romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who outlined the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. Outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama Boris Godunov, the stories The Captain's Daughter, Dubrovsky, Belkin's Tale, the Bronze Horseman poem, etc. as well as Lermontov's novel A Hero of Our Time.
In the 20-50s. another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to portray the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and by the very content of the works requiring changes.
The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls," "The Inspector General," and others, began the "Gogol period" of Russian literature in the 1930s and 1940s. “We all came out of Gogol’s Overcoat,” FM later noted. Dostoevsky.
Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky showed the reader the realistic world of the Russian merchants in his first drama "Our people - we will be numbered", who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class that was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained a rich life experience associated with the life and customs of the Russian merchants.
In the 40-50s. the central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores. A literary event was the publication of "Notes of a Hunter" by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian strip, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.
The hopeless poverty and oppression of the serf were portrayed in Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich's stories "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyka". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about Anton's misfortunes and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."
The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.
Theatre
In Russian theater, the change in artistic trends occurred as quickly as in literature.
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism prevailed on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots, external splendor.
In the 20-30s. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in the drama of F. Schiller “Treachery and Love). His play was distinguished by stormy emotionality, and his characters were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.
In the 40s. begins a new page in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In drama, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor of the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He with great skill conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the former Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet performances) and the Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Maly in its official character.
Music
Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If before the household opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of the historical past of Russia. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".
The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motives sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamov, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.
The romantic trend in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. "The people create music," he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it. "
Glinka managed to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the founder of the main genres of Russian professional music. The most vivid idea of the composer's work is provided by his opera "A Life for the Tsar" ("Ivan Susanin"). In it, Glinka glorified a simple peasant-patriot and at the same time the courage, steadfastness and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.
Development national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.
Painting
During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.
Karl Pavlovich Bryullov became the largest figure of classicism in Russian painting. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - he for the first time presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of a common man in a natural disaster. In this work of Bryullov, a striving for realism became apparent. It manifested itself in all of his paintings: "Self-portrait", "Horsewoman", etc.
The outstanding representatives of romanticism in painting were the remarkable portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed a sublime beginning, an inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. Distinctive feature Tropinin's creativity was a show of a person in his surroundings, for a favorite thing. Such are his genre portraits of "The Lacemaker", "Guitarist", "Gold Embroidery" and others. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of the picture is the belief in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. Words that can show people the way to a better future.
Pavel Andreevich Fedotov became the founder of critical realism in Russian painting. In his genre paintings, he managed to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "The Fresh Cavalier" and "The Courtship of a Major", in which one can see the drama of situations, the author's critical position in relation to reality.
The genre of the genre, popular in the 19th century, was born in connection with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On arable land. Spring "," At the harvest. Summer ”,“ Zakharka ”, in the portrait gallery of peasants, he portrayed their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the "Venetian school".
In the genre of seascape worked I.K. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with an amazingly picturesque depiction of the sea element. The painting "The Ninth Wave" acquired particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master's unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic nature of his work during this period.
The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.
Architecture
In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creation. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its peak at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, austerity of lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire style was also sculptures, which complemented the architectural design of buildings. In the Empire style, palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, meetings of nobility, public places, theaters and even temples were erected.
Early XIX century was the time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. In St. Petersburg, it was then that the Palace, Admiralteyskaya and Senatskaya squares were formed, in Moscow - Teatralnaya.
The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreian Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.
In Moscow in the Empire style, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were performed: the Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Teatralnaya Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.
Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored public buildings in Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.
With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton in this style created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc.
The largest Orthodox church Petersburg was Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, under the personal control of Emperor Nicholas I.
| Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral | The interior decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral |
Sculpture
The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. Especially many works organically inscribed in architectural ensembles were created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps at the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Peter Karlovich Klodt: "The Horse Tamer" on Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I erected on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments in Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand at Moscow, hands over an ancient sword to Prince Pozharsky and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded voivode rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of the people's consciousness at a difficult hour for the Fatherland.
The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "Golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: a rapid change in artistic styles and trends, mutual enrichment and close relationship of literature and other areas of art, strengthening of the public sound of the works created, organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.
Second half of the 19th century
Education
The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness of society and the state of the need for a broad enlightenment of the people. The reform in the field of education, carried out in 1864, expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:
1) zemstvo schools, created by the forces of zemstvos
2) church schools
3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education
Reform secondary schools were divided into two types:
-classical gymnasiums- in them, the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanitarian cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;
Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their great attention to natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.
Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parish schools, but the state did not have enough money for their maintenance. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most widespread type of primary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. The main type high school there were gymnasiums. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, after a quarter of a century the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. about 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.
There were also successes in higher education. New universities were opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the self-government rights of universities.
There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical and Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, Communications, Electrotechnical Universities, the Petrovsk Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher education for women took place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.
Overall, however, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the census in 1897 average level literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had a higher education, and 4% had a secondary education.
Scientific discoveries
| Mathematics and physics | |
| Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist | Constructed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal while walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - an arithmometer. |
| Alexander G. Stoletov - physicist | By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light |
| Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist | He made a transmitter-receiver, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For its discovery, he was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. |
| Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist | He created an arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world. |
| Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky | Constructed the world's first airplane |
| Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov | Invented the tracked tractor |
| Chemistry, biology | |
| Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist | Discovered the periodic law chemical elements, |
| Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist | Laid the foundations of organic chemistry |
| Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist | Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting forest protection belts |
| Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist | He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby bringing about a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically proved the unity and mutual dependence of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain. |
| Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist | He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern concepts of the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the organism, inherent in all representatives of this species, then the conditioned reflex is the reacquisition of the organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience. |
| Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists | They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods of combating rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants. |
| Geography | |
| Academician, Admiral Fedor Petrovich Litke - geographer | Examined Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific Ocean |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer | He carried out major geological and zoological surveys in Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand specimens, 218 new plant species were discovered |
| Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer | Dedicated his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. Has won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two hardest travel in the interior of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. |
| Humanitarian sciences | |
| Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev | Created a 29 - volume "History of Russia from Ancient Times". His Public Readings on Peter the Great, timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointed out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe. |
| Soloviev's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky | He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus" at Moscow University. He was the author of the "Course in Russian History", which he taught at Moscow University |
Domestic science second half of the XIX century came to the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.
Literature
The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of accusation, a keen interest in the life of an ordinary person, a desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: "Provincial Essays", "The History of a City", "Lord Golovlev", "Pompadours and Pompadours". The artistic device used by the writer is grotesque. In his works, he takes all existing vices and weaknesses to the extreme. The writer knows no mercy for either officials or representatives high society, nickname for merchants, nor for the nascent bourgeoisie.
In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on "Nadezhda" and "Neva" made the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition exploring the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, Aleutian Islands. Yuri Lisyanaky discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands on the Neva. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny" made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent." After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named in honor of Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821 the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol traded in Alaska since 1790. He made detailed maps Alaska and surrounding islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. B1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained in office until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848 Nicholas 1 sent G. Nevelskoy's expedition to the Far East. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the expedition around the world in 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and entered into an agreement with Japan. Around the world expeditions were made by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and made 50 maps. I. Voznesensky in 1839-40 described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began to study the Caspian. In 1848 E. Hoffman and M. Kovalsky explored Sev. Ural. In 1845 the Russian Geographical Society was established.
Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for Russian geographers.
In 1803-1806. the first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Nadezhda". The ship "Neva" was commanded by Captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the explored sites were compiled. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from Hawaii to Alaska, collected a wealth of material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.
The attention of researchers around the world has long been attracted by the mysterious area around the South Pole. It was assumed that there is a vast southern continent. English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the 18th century. crossed the South Arctic Circle, came across impassable ice and declared that it was impossible to sail further south. Since then, there have been no South Polar expeditions for a very long time.
In 1819, Russia sent an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops led by Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of the "Mirny" was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer, participated in the voyage of the Krusenstern. Lazarev later became famous as a combat admiral, who brought up a whole galaxy of naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).
The expedition crossed the South Arctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it in the area of the modern Bellingshausen Ice Shelf, the travelers concluded that in front of them was the "ice continent". Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to its homeland, having made the discovery of Antarctica and a complete voyage around it on small sailing ships, poorly adapted to polar conditions.
In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) examined Kurile Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin's notes about his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society to the life of this mysterious country. Golovnin's student, Fedor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played an important role in the development of geographical science.
Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy (1813-1876). In 1848-1849. he sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He opened the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.
The expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the matter of mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant countries, locals often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, the Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.
Moscow Automobile and Highway State Technical University
Discipline: Culturology
Russian travelers of the 19th century
Performed by Anna Evstifeeva
student of group 1 bmo2
Checked by Shorkova S.A.
Moscow 2013
Introduction
Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century
1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky
2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.
3 A.A. Baranov
Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century
1 G.I. Nevelskoy and E.V. Putyatin
2 N.M. Przhevalsky
3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay
Conclusion
Introduction
The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian researchers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the perceptions of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. For the first time, Russia has fulfilled an old dream: its ships entered the World Ocean.
Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century
.1
I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky
In 1803, at the direction of Alexander I, an expedition was undertaken on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. This was the first Russian round-the-world expedition, which lasted for 3 years. It was headed by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern, the largest navigator and scientist-geographer of the 19th century.
During the voyage, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island was mapped for the first time. The participants of the trip left many interesting observations not only about the Far East, but also about other regions through which they sailed. The commander of the Neva, Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky, discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans.
The results of the observations were presented in the report of the Academy of Sciences. They turned out to be so significant that I.F. Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the published in the early 20s. Atlas of the South Seas. In 1845, Admiral Kruzenshtern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society. He brought up a whole galaxy of Russian seafarers and explorers.
1.2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.
One of the students and followers of Kruzenshtern was Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen. He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.
In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on sloops (single-masted ships) "Vostok" (which he commanded) and "Mirny" (commander Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev). The expedition plan was drawn up by Kruzenshtern. Its main goal was designated “the acquisition of the fullest knowledge about our the globe"And" the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole. "
January 1820 the expedition approached the shores of the then unknown Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russians Islands.
For 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors covered about 50 thousand km. The most important geographical discoveries were made, valuable collections were brought, data from observations of the waters of the World Ocean and ice coverings of a continent new to mankind.
1.3
A.A. Baranov
Alexander Andreevich Baranov can hardly be attributed to discoverers or travelers in the strict sense of these words. But he was a man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian America by our compatriots. As a Kargopol merchant, he traded in Eastern Siberia, and since 1790 - in North-West America.
In search of new hunting areas, Baranov studied in detail Kodiak Island and other territories, searched for minerals, founded new Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary, established an exchange with local residents... It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America.
Baranov's activities were extremely difficult and dangerous. The constant raids of the Indians cost the Russian settlers not only considerable funds, but also their lives. In 1802 alone, when trying to create a settlement on the island of Sitka, more than 200 settlers were killed.
Baranov's efforts were so successful that in 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of the Russian colonies in America. He held this high and dangerous post almost until his death.
In 1804, Baranov founded the Novoarkhangelsk fortress on the Sitka island, and then the Ross fort. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of their annexation to Russia. However, she did not bring good luck. Already an elderly and sick person, Alexander Andreevich asked for resignation three times. However, they were in no hurry to release such a person from service.
geographic Russian round the world expedition
Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century
The largest researcher of the Russian Far East in the middle of the 19th century. became Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky.
In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855) he succeeded, bypassing Sakhalin from the north, discovering a number of new, previously unknown territories and entering the lower reaches of the Amur. Here in 1850 he founded the Nikolaev post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelskoy's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin was not at all connected to the mainland, but was an island and the Tatar Strait was precisely a strait, not a bay, as was believed.
Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin in 1822-1825 traveled around the world and left a description of what he saw to the descendants. In the years 1852-1855. during the expedition led by him on the frigate "Pallada" the islands of Rimsky-Korsakov were discovered. Putyatin became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan, closed from Europeans, and even sign an agreement there (1855).
The result of the expeditions of Nevelskoy and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.
The most important of these institutions was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845. It turned into the center geographic knowledge in Russia.
2.2 N.M. Przhevalsky
Przewalski dreamed of wanderings from an early age and prepared for them stubbornly. But the Crimean War broke out - he went to the army as a private. And then years of study at the Academy of the General Staff. However, a military career did not appeal to him. Staying at the Academy was marked for Przewalski only by compiling Military Statistical Review of the Amur Territory .
However, this work allowed him to become a member of the Geographical Society. At the beginning of 1867, Przhevalsky presented to the Society a plan for a large and risky expedition to Central Asia. However, the insolence of the young officer seemed excessive, and the matter was limited to his business trip to the Ussuri region with permission carry out any scientific research ... But Przewalski met this decision with delight. On this first trip, Przewalski compiled the most Full description Ussuriysk Territory and gained valuable expeditionary experience. Now they believed in him: there were no obstacles to travel to Mongolia and the Tangut country - Northern Tibet, as he dreamed of. During the four years of the expedition (1870-1873), significant amendments were made to the geographical map. In 1876, he again headed for Tibet. The first of the Europeans, Przhevalsky reaches the mysterious Lake Lop Nor, discovers the previously unknown Altindag ridge and defines the exact border of the Tibetan Plateau, establishing that it begins 300 km further north than previously thought. But this time he failed to penetrate deep into this almost unknown country to Europeans. And yet, three years later, the Russian explorer reached the cherished highlands. The absolute lack of exploration of this area attracted Przhevalsky, who sent here in the early 1880s. your expedition. It was his most fruitful journey, culminating in many discoveries. True, the source of the Yellow River Przhevalsky was never found (it was found only quite recently), but the Russian expedition thoroughly investigated the watershed between the Yellow River - the Yellow River and the Blue River, the largest in China and Eurasia - the Yangtze. Previously unknown ridges were mapped. Przhevalsky gave them names: Columbus Ridge, Moskovsky Ridge, Russian Ridge. He called one of the peaks of the latter the Kremlin. Subsequently in this mountain system a ridge appeared that immortalized the name of Przhevalsky himself. During all his expeditions, Przhevalsky, being a professional geographer, made discoveries that could bring glory to any zoologist or botanist. He described a wild horse (Przewalski's horse), a wild camel and a Tibetan bear, several new species of birds, fish and reptiles, hundreds of plant species. And again he was getting ready to go. Tibet again beckoned him to her. This time Przewalski was determined to visit Lhasa. But all plans collapsed. He was dying in his tent as soon as he started the journey. Before he died, he asked his companions to bury him certainly on the shore of Issyk-Kul, in a marching expeditionary uniform ... .
November 1888 Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky died. His last request was fulfilled. 2.3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay
Every culture, every tribe or people, every human person has the right to independence. When interacting, communicating, they should proceed from mutual respect, not trying to impose their own rules, their way of life, and not imposing their thoughts by force. These principles were close and understandable to Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay, who was brought up in an intelligent Russian family during the flourishing of Russian culture, primarily literature, permeated with the ideas of freedom, humanism, goodness and the search for truth. After studying biology and medicine in Germany, having made several scientific expeditions (he was an assistant to the famous biologist and ecologist E. Haeckel), he returned to Russia and then decided to go to New Guinea. K.M. Baer recommended that he observe people "without prejudice regarding the number and distribution of human tribes and races." Until the middle of the XIX century. New Guinea remained aloof from the economic interests of the industrialized European powers. Perhaps, it was influenced by the fact that no deposits of precious metals were found on it. It is also possible that the reason for this is rumors about the local cannibalistic savages. In addition, lush tropical vegetation hindered the development of these territories. A more or less thorough study of New Guinea began in 1871-1872: Italian scientists Luigi Albertis and Odoardo Beccari explored the northwestern part of the island. Miklouho-Maclay had to hurry to find at least some of the Papuan tribes in their natural state. Therefore, he chose the practically unexplored southeastern coast of New Guinea, landed there in September 1871 and lived among the "savages" for more than a year, communicating with them, winning their respect and trust. First stay on the Maclay bank. September 1871 "Vityaz" anchored about 140 m from the coast. The Papuans soon appeared; Miklouho-Maclay, abandoning his protection, landed on the shore with Ohlson and Boy and visited the village, the entire population of which fled into the jungle. The most courageous turned out to be a Papuan named Tui (in the pronunciation recorded by D.D.Tumarkin in 1977 - Toya). It is Tui who will become the main intermediary of Miklouho-Maclay with the inhabitants of the coastal villages. Nazimov warned that he would be able to stand no more than a week, so Miklouho-Maclay, with the help of Tui, searched for Cape Garagasi, where a hut for a scientist was built (size 7 × 14 feet), and a cook was set up in a hut belonging to Tui. At the insistence of the Vityaz commander, site 70 × 70 m was mined; information about whether Miklouho-Maclay used mines contradicts each other and is unverifiable. Of the products, Nikolai Nikolaevich had two pounds of rice, Chilean beans, dried meat and a can of edible fat. Nazimov forced Miklouho-Maclay to take the team's daily allowance - that is, a daily supply of food for 300 people, but Nikolai Nikolaevich refused to take the supply free of charge. On September 27, the Vityaz left the bay. The first month in New Guinea passed quite tensely. Miklouho-Maclay came to the conclusion that his visits disturb the islanders excessively and limited himself only to contacts with the natives who visited him at Cape Garagasi. Since he did not know the language and customs, at first he limited himself to meteorological and zoobotanical research. Already on October 11, he was struck down by the first attack of fever, and repeated attacks continued during the entire stay of the scientist in Astrolabe Bay. The servants were constantly sick, especially it was bad for Boy, whom Miklouho-Maclay diagnosed with "swelling of the lymphatic glands in the groin." The operation did not help; on December 13, the boy died. Miklouho-Maclay at the same time recalled his promise to Professor Gegenbaur to obtain a preparation for the larynx of a black man with tongue and all the muscles, which he prepared, despite the danger of the situation. By January 1872, Miklouho-Maclay's authority among local population grew up, and on January 11, he first received an invitation to the village of Bongu. There was an exchange of gifts, but the New Guineans still hid their wives and children from the scientist. In February 1872, Nikolai Nikolaevich managed to heal Tui from a serious wound (a tree fell on him, the wound on his head festered), after which the scientist was received in the village, Tui introduced him to his wife and children; the opinion of the European as an evil spirit was greatly shaken. The ethnographer's symbolic inclusion in the local society took place on March 2 at a night ceremony attended by men from three related villages - Gumbu, Gorendu and Bongu. Miklouho-Maclay himself left an artistic description of the ceremony in his diary. After that, the scientist could safely make long excursions along the coast and even to the mountains. The greatest difficulty was created by the language barrier: by the end of his first stay in New Guinea, the scientist spoke about 350 words of the local Bongu language, and there were at least 15 languages in the vicinity. The investigated territories, the shores of the Astrolabe Bay and part of the coast to the east from it to Cape Huon, Miklouho-Maclay called by his name - "Miklouho-Maclay Coast", defining it geographic boundaries as follows: from Cape Croasil in the west to Cape King William in the east, from the seashore in the northeast to the highest ridge of the Mana Borough Borough mountains in the southwest. Conclusion
World geographical science in those years was largely based on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century. Bibliography
1.Danilov A.A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education. institutions / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin. - 10th ed. - M .: Education, 2009 .-- 287 p., Fol. ill., cards. 2.Zezina M.R. L.V. Koshman Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. - M., 1990
