Two of them stayed with us, and the rest, so as not to arouse suspicions,
returned. Nevertheless, they were tracked, unseen, and soon on the other side
the sounds of drums and battle pipes were heard, as well as the noise of a real battle: it was revolted
slaves against their oppressors, for which they captured a large si [(the pyramid of the temple)].
And then we arrived. We wade the river, although the water reached our chest
For this reason, the Indians called these territories and the Indians their inhabitants. These indigenous cultures are known as pre-Columbian, that is, before the arrival of Columbus. Pre-Columbian Mayan civilizations. They were farmers who lived on corn crops and organized themselves into independent city-states. They developed great knowledge in the fields of astronomy and mathematics. They were a warlike people and conquered a great empire that stretched across the center and south of Mexico. The main economic activities were agriculture and trade.
and the current was very strong. Climbing ashore, we hit the enemy, and the recent
slaves attacked from the rear with unprecedented ferocity, and soon we won a complete victory
and in good order, with music and banners, they entered the enemy city.
The inhabitants fled, of course. Nonash captain with skillful actions made them
return; their example was followed by the population of neighboring villages, and soon life entered
The Inca civilization developed in South America. They created an empire centered in the Cuzco region. Conquest and Organization of the American Empire Great Expeditions Conquest of Mexico. At the same time, Nunez Cabeza de Vaca explored Florida, Texas and California. Further south, Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia conquered Chile Buenos Aires was founded and finally in Asia, Philippine Islands were conquered. Organization of the conquered territories. The conquered territories were incorporated into the Crown of Castile, which financed the discovery and controlled its colonization.
v rut, and our padre preached with great success. The good relationship was soon
violated by the fault of one of our soldiers, who was in Chamul, a nearby large
city. The soldier was sent to Mexico City for trial, but Chamula still rose, and she had to
to conquer again. The city lay in the mountains and was protected by strong walls, and
Immediately they were introduced to the language, culture and religion, as well as the laws of Castile. Two viceroialities were created: New Spain and Peru. Each of them had a governor in front of him. The governors had different provinces ruled by governors. Municipalities were also created with city administration councils and hearings on law and justice. Colonization of Spanish America Resource Exploitation The new American territories were an important source of income for Castile, and especially for the Crown.
Once settled, the settlers sought stable sources of resources and demanded that the crown provide land and mines. The lands were distributed among the colonialists and worked on them, the encomidend system was created. The rapid discovery of gold and silver has prompted regulations for the exploitation and commercialization of these metals. American Trade Indians were the source of commercial exchanges. The monopoly of all this trade was given to the port of Seville, from where they departed and where all the ships arrived. Colonial Society Political and economic power was in the hands of the Spaniards, who came from the peninsula to fulfill all kinds of positions.
impassable chasms.
The shelling gave nothing, and so we built special strong mobile
awnings, under the protection of which we began to undermine the walls. Defenders dropped
various combustible materials, trying to light the awnings, poured boiling water, brought down
large blocks of stones. The canopies collapsed several times, and we built more
Geographical discoveries in the Pacific
But the majority of the population consisted of Indians, of very different ethnic groups. In areas where indigenous labor was scarce, black Africans were transferred to work as slaves. Columbus was an extraordinary navigator, and after the famous seas he sailed from the age of 12. Nevertheless, he mistakenly calculated the perimeter of the Earth and through this error sailed to the sea and discovered New World.
Major mistake: India is close and can be reached
This fundamental mistake allowed the New World to be discovered. If Christopher Columbus knew that India was three times more than he bargained for, he would never have gone west. He could not have known that between Europe and India there was still a whole new huge continent, America. Columbus in Portugal and Castile refused because they thought the Earth was flat or because it was Janovan.
strong, not for a minute stopping their work. The bitterness of both sides is everything
I remember how the priests shouted from the walls: “You need gold, only gold
then! Here! " - and wonderfully worked decorations flew from the walls, but they were thrown into
a place where arrows and darts could freely reach.
But then, one afternoon, a downpour passed, and then a dense fog followed, as it happens in
Christopher Columbus and his maps - trailer. Unlike Columba, local researchers correctly perceived the perimeter of the Earth, and it was clear to them that Columbus had made a terrible calculation error. He thought the Earth was one-third smaller than it really is. According to them, a sailor could never fly west and west.
How was this basic mistake made? In ancient times, Greek mathematicians calculated the scheme of the Earth very accurately. On the globe there are three well-known continents and undiscovered land, as well as an island in the ocean to the east known as Chipango, Japan, which was described by Marco Polo without his observation.
mountains. Nothing was visible, and even the sounds somehow died out. Our captain wanted to stop
while work, but I, knowing from mechik examples, that the enemy in such cases weakens, with
few comrades made his way through the gap and, in fact, stumbled upon
a small detachment of 200 people. A desperate fight ensued, and maybe all of us
This was the world in which Columbus planned his expedition. He wanted to get to China and Of the Far East from the west along a route no one had dared to see before. In Seville, Columbus tried to back up his plans with serious facts. He studied all available materials, including Greek authors.
Colonization and the Catholic Church
He found the calculations of the Greek mathematician Marina Tyr, quoted by Ptolemy. His calculation of the scheme of the Earth was even lower than that of Ptolemy. Since the lesser Earth matched his plans better, Columbus used these calculations to defend the route to the west.
Ours arrived, and the city was taken; residents in panic rushed into
the opposite part of the city, where they tried to sneak away along the steep almost
rocks; many were injured to death. We took many prisoners, no treasures
did not find. According to our custom, we sent some of the prisoners to return
fleeing. They came, expressed obedience, and their goods were returned to them. Our captain
From Lisbon, you can travel directly west of 26 degrees, each of which is 250 miles. This distance is almost one-third of the Earth in the great and noble city of Kinsey, about which stories are so much talked about, said Columbus. But he was very calculated around the entire perimeter of the Earth. He was wrong about the likely size of Asia, and his mistake was huge — about a thousand miles from how far he was supposed to sail. If he hadn't made these erroneous calculations, he would never have left.
Scientists in the courts of the Portuguese king and the Spanish rulers in Castile abandoned it, not because they considered the world to be flat or because of the legends of past centuries. They gave it up because they were doing the math themselves, and it was clear to them that Columbus had made a terrible mistake in terms of the perimeter of the Earth. The sailors will die during the voyage because the ships were unable to collect enough supplies at that distance.
REASONS FOR GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
Great geographical discoveries were traces
development, productive forces pheo-
a distant society, the growth of commodity-money
relations, the system of feudal production
relations, growth of trade relations of European countries with countries
With the development of commodity-money relations, money acquires
Their conclusions were correct because Marinos made two mistakes from Tyr. First, he assumed that Europe, Africa and Asia cover 225 degrees, whereas today we know that these three continents cover only 130 degrees. Therefore, the distance separating Europe from India is three times greater than Columbus thought.
After seven years of persuasion, Columbus was granted the Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabel. They didn't give him much - just three boats and a loan from the Pinzon family. Columbus was named admiral of the seas and oceans and envoy spanish crown... Pinta, Ninha and Santa Maria left Palos in August.
of great importance, they become a means of satisfying everything
growing needs and the main type of wealth.
"The insatiable thirst for gold was intensified by the growth of the
govli, who demanded a large amount of hard currency; many de-
neg went outside Europe in payment for oriental goods,
the import of which has steadily increased. As a result, the feeling of
The first expedition of Columbus opened the way across the great ocean, which is now called Atlanta. Columbus missed the Azores and, like the current sailors, he grabbed the passages that sailed from the Bay of Guinea westward across the Atlantic. After 33 days before the unknown, the island appeared on the horizon. This was not a surprise to Columba - the land found for him was an island along the coast of China, and Columbus thereby confirmed the alleged accuracy of his calculations.
This is part of today's Bahamas... The natives also told him that the island of Cuba was already lying, but Columbus mistakenly identified himself with Chipan, since Marco Polo named Japan. But the Colombian island of Hispaniola, now home to Haiti and the Dominican Republic, was also discovered.
there was a shortage of precious metals. In Europe, opportunities for
there was no satisfaction of the thirst for gold, but outside of it, according to
Europeans believed that inexhaustible wealth lurked.
The richest country for Europeans seemed to be Africa, where
after the Mediterranean cities, merchants brought gold to Europe,
mined in Senegal and in the Niger Basin. Here in the territory
Therefore, Cuba condemned the Asian mainland, since Chipango "moved" to Spain. Getting it right is Columbus's obsession with locating locations and capturing them on the world map. Columbus was a seasoned sailor who had been on merchant ships for 12 years, first in the Mediterranean and then in the ocean from Northern Europe to the African coast. The world he learned corresponded to the state of knowledge of the ancient Greek mathematician and cartographer Ptolemy, recorded in his work "Geography" around 140 AD.
For Christ at the end of the century, including Christopher Columbus, the world consisted of three continents - Asia, Europe, and Africa. Europe was relatively well moved and mapped in ancient times. Africa ended in the south of the Sahara. The land was known to extend there beyond the equator, but the land was known as the burnt land because the land was arid due to the sun.
Senegal, Mali, Upper Volta, Nigeria, from the 7th to the 15th centuries educational
There were several rich states - Ghana, Mali, Songhai. Goro-
yes of these countries, especially Timbuktu in Niger - a large center
Islamic culture, led to the Mediterranean through the Sahara, revived
lonely trade, in which the export of golden sand occupied a large
a place. In the stories of merchants, the gold reserves of Africa took fan
To the east of the Eurasian continent ended the Malak Peninsula, which Columbus sought in vain for his third and fourth expeditions. The famous world ended with China, which was discovered by Marco Polo. Ptolemy denied the existence of other continents and believed that the world ended in a huge ocean.
Columbo's imagination stimulated the very outpost of the then world. He was fascinated by the book "Million", written by Marc Paul, as well as the travel records of the French knight Jean de Mandeville. The second expedition was not completed after five months. The shipowners were soldiers, officers, monks, artisans and peasants, as well as all livestock and tools.
tastic scales.
China, India, Indo-China, Indonesia were considered fabulously god
ty and were often called<Индиями>... This name in a number of cases
ee belonged generally to unknown overseas countries and was far from
always denoted real India, from where Europe really
received silk, spices, etc. BCJC these vague ideas
The boats this time arrived on the still unspoiled continent, a little southern in the Lesser Antilles. Columbus docked in Guadeloupe and then continued on to Hispaniola. Columbus intended to return and this time to discover India, which, according to his calculations, should lie further south of the discovered territory. In late July, believing that he had reached the farthest end of India, he landed on the South American continent, where he discovered the island of Trinidad and the huge mouth of the Orinoco River.
But where did this huge river come from? India didn't - but when there were only three continents, what did he actually discover? Columbus thought he had found the Garden of Eden, an earthly paradise. There could be no other continent. Handwritten notes by Krzysztof Columba on a copy of the description of the world.
played a significant role in the geographical discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. "
for they prompted the sailors to persistent attempts to get
to imaginary and actually existing countries.
They rushed in search of African gold in the 15th century. port-
Gali sailors. They believed that gold was mined in Africa
on the shallows big rivers flowing into Atlantic Ocean, in part
In the autumn of the same year, another expedition to "India" came to an end. Jamaican discovery. During this, Christopher Columbus first saw the land of South America. The return was for him and his brothers: Bartlomey and Diga were fatal. Already in the days of Columbus, it was argued that the land he discovered was not India, but a new continent. His work continued, in particular. Cabotas, Hededa, Vincente Yanez, Pinzon, Cabral and Amerigo Vespucci, who carefully studied the shores of America.
Discoveries of Portugal and Vasco da Gama's trip to India. The opening of the sea route to India, which was the main goal of Christopher Columbus, was accompanied by the Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gami. Representatives of this country, especially since the time of Heinrich the Navigator, have been the organizers of many sea expeditions to open this road to India, but around the coast of Africa. Etc. Portuguese sailors Zarco, Tristao and J. In July of the following year, the expedition returned to Portugal, and India became a discovery for the colonial expansion of Europe.
at the mouth of one of them near Cape Bohador. It seemed so
that it is quite possible to get to the Golden River by following the sea
along west coast Africa.
In the XIV - XV centuries. trade and seafarers were developed in Portugal
state. This was facilitated by the connections of the Portuguese with the wealthy and
receptive Arab merchants, which began in the XII century. Por-
Tughals got acquainted with Arabic mathematics, geography and car-
tography, which turned out to be especially important for further mor-
enterprises. They began to build caravels, new seaworthy
ships light on the wave, able to sail upwind and faster
more roaming than the Italian Mediterranean naves.
Actively participated in the Portuguese maritime trade took
numerous merchants and sailors who moved to Portugal from
Italy, primarily from Genoa, since in the 15th century. because of the
of the conquests of the Genoese merchants, the eastern trade came
elk led through Alexandria, where, as in the whole Eastern Middle-
earthsea, the dominant position was occupied by the Venetians. Co-
the decline in trade and navigation forced the Genoese merchants and
sailors seek their fortune on the wrong side. It should be noted that Co-
Lumb and Cabotto (Cabot) were from Genoa.
Portugal encouraged the search and seizure of overseas lands,
as well as Spain for reasons of an internal nature: // reconquista in
these countries ended, and most of the warlike and poor
th nobility, thirsty for profit and military adventures, remained
without causes. As for Africa, expeditions to this rich and
the unknown continent was also dictated by military considerations
since the Moors from the northwestern African coast continued
reaped pirate raids on Spanish and Portuguese ships, and
sometimes to the coastal cities of the Iberian Peninsula.
In 1415, the Portuguese took on the North African coast of Seu-
that, an important point on the trade routes, along which, in particular, went
gold to Mediterranean... The mastery of Ceuta is accepted
rook of Portuguese colonial expansion. Portuguese kup-
emigrants and merchants from other countries began to equip sea
expeditions to find overseas gold. By this
enterprises with great benefit were patronized by the brother
Portuguese king, Prince Henry, nicknamed by historians
XIX century.<Мореплавателем>.
Trading companies the Portuguese received with the help of Henry
monopoly of trade in newly discovered areas and quickly
lived. The most profitable<торговлей>turned out to be a robbery of a local
population and the slave trade, this is what made the Portuguese all
years they reached the western tip of Africa. There is no data
that the Portuguese pursued from the very beginning the goal
find a sea route to India. They could set such a goal
in front of him only after they entered the Gulf of Guinea, where
The African coast slopes steeply to the east, i.e. about 1460,
Moving along west coast South Africa, south of
Gulf of Guinea, obstructed by strong countercurrents *
To avoid them, the navigator Bartholomew Diaz in 1486, before
having hit the tropic of Capricorn, he moved away from the coast far into the sea, straight
southward, and, making a large arc, went to the southern tip of Af-
indolence and that he did manage to circumnavigate the mainland, Diaz on
on the way back I skirted the cape Good Hope, calling it exactly
so, and in December 1487, after a 16-month voyage, he returned to
Lisbon. The task is to go part of the way to India, from Cape Good Na-
dachi to Madagascar, was settled in 1498.
Discovery of America Simultaneously with the advance along the west
coast of Africa begin, probably
with the participation of Italian sailors, sailing the Portuguese far in
open ocean - to the southwest and west. In the 20s of the XV century. port-
the Galians established themselves on the Madeira Islands, at the beginning of the 30s - on
1 Azorah, and in 1456 they reached the Cape Verde Islands.
Swim across the Atlantic Ocean and discover the lands of the Western
Lusharia succeeded in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. Many bi-
oography of Columbus, as well as his geographical representations of
Lumb is an Italian born in 1451 near Genoa in the family of a weaver.
He did not receive a systematic education. In the years 1474-1475. pla-
shaft in the Eastern Mediterranean. Around 1476 he ended up in Portugal
Liu, probably as an agent of one of the Genoese trading houses, in
the next year he visited England, and from 1479-1481. lived in Madeira
and on the neighboring island of Porto Santo, where he married a sailor's daughter,
from which there is a lot nautical charts, diaries, notes.
In 1483, Columbus began negotiations with Portugal on sleep
during a large sea expedition. Portuguese government
denied to Columbus, apparently because it could hardly be
be tempted by a new adventure at the moment when the opening of the way to
very real richest India was so close to real
vision. Unsuccessful, Columbus made his way to Spain (c.
1485) and here, after lengthy negotiations, with the support of influential
close associates of the king and the richest Spanish merchants
got the royal couple - Ferdinand and Isabella - consent
on the expedition. The king and queen bestowed upon Columbus the title of hell
miral and viceroy of all lands in<море-океане, которые он откро-
and will acquire>.
Judging by the composition of the books of the Columbus library and his notes on
them, he read<Путешествия>Marco Polo and especially attentively
studied the treatise of the supporter of the hypothesis of the spherical shape of the Earth
French bishop Pierre d'Alyy<Зеркало мира>, represented
which was a summary of geographical and cosmographic knowledge
gayut, intended, moving along the sea to the west, to get to<Ин-
dii> - that was the name of Asia then. This thought could have been suggested
Columbus by the Italian cosmographer Toscanelli, with whom Columbus
was in correspondence (some historians considered this correspondence
are fake). But a plan could have arisen from
Columbus and independently based on the works he studied
geographers.
you were technically well equipped. Columbus showed himself
skillful sailor, he skillfully used the winds and sea currents
Columbus dropped anchor at small island the Bahamian group
islands; he_called him San Salvador.
The way to the lands of the Western "hemisphere was opened, which had a
great implications for both open land and Europe
This is the great historical meaning voyages of Columbus.
/ "During the first trip, Columbus discovered a number of islands
Antilles archipelago, northern shores
Elbe, the island of Haiti, which-
ry named (Little Spain). Here he built
Fort Navidad (Christmas), where 39 of his sailors settled. It would-
la the first colony of Europeans in the Western Hemisphere. Fort soon
was destroyed, and the settlers were killed by the Indians, outraged by their
violence. However, the Spaniards did not back down. In 1496 on the southern coast
Rego Hispaniola was founded by the city of San Domingo.
Columbus asked the natives about gold. A clear idea,
what exactly he discovered and where he is, he did not have and will not be
could. From the diary, he thought he was among the islands,
bordering Asia from the east, and in vain looked for a passage between
mi to the continent.
he was greeted with great honors. For the organization of the second
a swarm of expeditions undertaken by him in September of the same year were
large funds were launched. During the second voyage of Columbus
opened Small Antilles... Sailing along part of the southern
the coast of Cuba, Columbus again mistook him for South coast Asia.
In 1495 he returned to Spain. And on this journey, Columbus does not
reached the American continent, which the Europeans discovered two
a year later - in 1497. In May of this year, from Bristol (England) you
went to sea Giovanni Cabotto, a Genoese who settled in England and from
famous there under the name of John Cabot. By the end of June he approached
to the shore of an unknown land, apparently to Labrador, but took it
for a part of Asia. Only in 1498, during the third trip of Co-
loom first approached the South American continent, to the mouth
the Orinoco River, but did not land on the bank. At the sight of huge masses
fresh water, he wondered if he had discovered an unknown
the mainland, but in his letter-report to the royal couple about their journey
Columbus did not express this bold idea during the procession.
Meanwhile, the Portuguese opened a sea route to India,
spices and other precious goods were brought from there. Fourth plan
Columbus's move in 1502 was a direct response to Vasco's expedition
da Gama (see below). Moving southwest from the island of Cuba,
Columbus still believed he had reached East coast Asia,
and persistently sought the strait in order to pass to the coast of India. One-
however, these searches were fruitless.
In general, the voyages and discoveries of Columbus were deeply disappointing
Spanish government. Big funds have been spent
seemed completely in vain. No gold, no silver, no spice
did not flow into Spain from newly discovered overseas countries. Rich
came later, after the death of Columbus (he died in 1506), when
one in last years life had to fight for their rights
va and the privileges granted to him with the deceived in his calculations
the Spanish government.
After Columbus discovered new countries,
pants turned out to be dangerous competitors
Portuguese. To prevent possible
collision, both states in the presence of
the mediation of the pope, after long negotiations, was concluded in 1494.
agreement in the city of Tordesillas. Pole to pole was
a line is drawn (approximately along the 30-degree meridian to the
padu from Ferro) and found that all newly discovered areas to
to the west of this line should belong to the Spaniards, to the east -
to the Portuguese. The delineation was drawn only along the Atlantic
ocean, which later led to a collision when the Spanish
ts, approaching from the east, and the Portuguese from the west, met on Mo-
Lucca islands.
The advance of the Spaniards to the west prompted the Portuguese to revive
new search for a way to India. In 1497, at the head of the expedition,
Wife for this purpose, the king appointed Vasco da Gama (born c.
rable (two ships with a displacement of 120 tons each and two - each
50 tons). The expedition had the most perfect for its time
maps and navigation tools. Reaching the Green Islands
Cape, Vasco da Gama, to avoid coastal oncoming
chheny, headed south with a large slope to the west, so he passed
pretty close to Brazil.
Only five months after leaving Lisbon, the caravel
the people of Vasco da Gama reached the last sign put
1498 the Portuguese approached Mozambique. This is where the region began
Arab settlements under the rule of warring inter-
the sheikhs. In the city of Malindi, Vasco da Gama succeeded in
attract as a pilot one of the most experienced Arab sailors
that time of Ahmed-Ibn-Majid. A person with a broad outlook
rum, he composed in poetic form a number of detailed and accurate
descriptions of sailing in the Indian Ocean (the so-called lo-
tion). Both theoretical knowledge and many years of seaworthiness
experience Ibn Majid surpassed even such wonderful Euro-
1498) Ibn Majid brought ships to the city of Calicut on Mala
lordly shore. The entire voyage to India lasted more than ten
him months. Vasco da Gama managed to conclude an agreement with the
nym rajoy. A year later, in July 1499, loaded with spices,
but the squadron that lost two ships and more than half of the crew
returned to Lisbon.
COLONIAL CONTRACTIONS OF PORTUGAL IN INDIA
Travel impression
Vasco da Gama was enormous. In spite of
great losses in people and difficulties, mor-
the path to the land of fabulous riches was
finally found. The Portuguese now equip every year
large squadrons, sometimes up to 20 ships, well armed
artillery, with large crews and detachments of soldiers. Thanks to
the superiority of weapons, the Portuguese managed to oust from the Institute
the ocean of Arab merchants and seize the sea
trade: they attacked all the ships they met, like Arab,
and the Indian, robbed them and brutally exterminated the teams. Oso-
Benny ferocity was distinguished by Albuquerque, at first the chief
squadron, then Viceroy of India. He believed that the Arabs should
exits to the ocean should be closed and in strong points should be strengthened
drink the Portuguese. To this end, Albuquerque captured the island
Socotru, which lies at the entrance to the Red Sea, and Hormuz, the most important
trade and strategic point at the entrance to the Persian Gulf. By-
torture by the Arabs to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed
las, in 1509 their fleet at Diu (on the North-West coast
India) suffered a complete defeat.
The Portuguese in India itself did not capture vast territories.
riy, but sought to seize strongholds on the coast.
Albuquerque, taking the city of Goa on the Malabar coast, "carved out all
population and turned the city into the main stronghold of the Portuguese
domination in India. The resistance of the hostile rajas was broken
flax. The Portuguese, usually extorting from the local princelings all sorts of
trade privileges, the right to collect tribute and quitrent, brutally exploited
tied local population... In addition, the princelings had to
put peppers, cloves, cinnamon, ginger at a very low price,
nutmeg, gum, etc. Prices were often many times
lower prices in the market in Lisbon. But even those bought on<вольном>
market goods, such as pepper, sometimes gave 700-800% of the profit.
Export was strictly rationed - not more ships spices
annually. Trade with India became the monopoly of the Portuguese
role and brought profits.
Having fortified in India, the Portuguese moved further east,
since the cities of the Malabar coast were only transit points
the spice trade that came from the Sunda and Mo-
the Lucca Islands; their main market was the port of Malacca. In 1511 g.
the Portuguese took Malacca; ten years later in the Moluccan Islands
wax portuguese trading posts appeared.
Helped immensely the Portuguese in their advancement in Indo-
acquaintance with the centuries-old experience of wonderful Indian
Arab, and later Malay sailors, long before the arrival of the Ev-
ropeans furrowed in all directions Indian Ocean.
But the Europeans repaid them for this with colonial conquests, destroying
the course of their trade.
The goal that is usually attributed to the first
the first journey of Columbus and which, probably
clearly, Columbus set himself in his subsequent
travels - the discovery of the western
tee to India, has been reached for almost 30 years
later after his maiden voyage. With the solution of this problem, the
but the discovery and exploration of the East Coast of the South
America. Brazil was discovered, apparently, at the same time by the Spanish
and Portuguese sailors in 1498-1499. Italian cosmographer
Dmerigo Vespucci, participating in the Spanish expedition under the command
Alonso Ojeda, which has traveled quite a long distance
along the northern coast of Brazil, already then recognized this land
continent.
Head of the second Portuguese expedition to India Juan Kab-
ral dodged too far to the west on its way and approached
to the coast of Brazil. Unaware of the travels of their predecessors
Vennikov, he took this land for an island, called it the land of the True
Foot Cross (Vera Cruz) and declared the possession of the Portuguese
role. In May 1501, the Portuguese equipped three ships for inspection
giving this<острова>... As an astronomer with a squadron, he sent
Xia transferred to the service of the Portuguese Amerigo Vespucci. Vme-
one hundred expected island squadron stumbled upon a long line of
coast, stretching to the south. Amerigo Vespucci fascinatingly describes
sal this journey in a letter to his friend Lorenzo Medici and
offered to name this continent,<совершенно неизвестный древ-
him>, the New World. German cosmographer Waldsemgoller, publishing
Vespucci's letter in his<Введении в космографию>, suggested calling
to create a new continent named Amerigo<Америкой>... Under<Амери-
coy>, thus, was then implied Eastern South
but the American continent.
Vespucci was the first to suggest the possibility of sailing to Mo-
the Lucca Islands, circling from the south again open continent... By this
the Spanish government was very interested in the project, especially
but after the Spanish conquistador Balboa, having crossed Panama-
the isthmus in 1513, I saw for the first time<Великое Южное море>,
those. Pacific Ocean... Thought to open a strait in this sea, to cross it,
to reach the islands of spices and capture them was carried away by the Spaniards. Her
and tried to implement Fernand (Ferdinand) Magalliance (Ma-
gellan). He belonged to the Portuguese nobility (born
OK. 1470) and, apparently, knew the Indian Ocean well, having spent in
Portuguese colonies for several years, participating, among other things, in
expedition to Malacca. But after falling out with the king, he moved on
to serve in Spain and under an agreement with the Spanish government
pledged to open the strait south of the new mainland.
with a crew of 253 people left San Lucar. Swimming Magel-
lana lasted two years. He skirted South America across
the strait named after him entered the Pacific Ocean and reached Fi-
the Lipino islands, where he died in a skirmish with the natives. Only one
the ship under the command of d "Elcano crossed the Indian Ocean and,
so the first trip around the world... It was worth the pain
their victims: only 18 people walked in a solemn procession in
With the advent of Spanish sailors in the Pacific Ocean, the need arose
the validity of an agreement between Spain and Portugal on the demarcation
and in these areas. It was achieved seven years later, in
1529 Experts could not accurately establish the longitude of the disputed islands
wwii. As a result, Spain renounced its claim to Mo-
Lucca, but retained the Philippines, so named only in 1543.
Sailing from Europe to Asia through the Strait of Magellan was
the most difficult maritime enterprise, and therefore the southwestern route
on Molucca had no practical meaning.
THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO AND PERU BY SPAIN
Spaniards settling in the Caribbean islands
sky sea, in search of gold, and sometimes slaves
equipped expeditions to the surrounding Mec-
Sican Gulf continental areas and then moved to
the seizure of the countries lying to the south of it. These regions are Mexico and Pe-
ru - were occupied by two large tribal associations: led by ac-
the Tecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru.
The people of Mexico manually cultivated the land with stone and wood
tools, planted maize, beans, cocoa, tobacco, cotton, agave (for water
lokna), cacti. The land was in the possession of the clan community. Horses and
the Mexicans did not know cattle. They skillfully worked gold, silver
ro, native copper, but they did not know how to melt metals and did not know bronze. Mek-
the Sicans made excellent dishes, but without the help potter's wheel, is-
they painted finely woven cotton fabrics.
The question of the social order of the Mexicans has not been finally resolved. From-
it is known that at the time of the arrival of the Europeans, they had large families
nye communities that lived in large houses. All management of the tribe is
elk in the hands of the councils of elected tribal elders. The Mexicans had a
slavery is widespread. (Spanish eyewitnesses talk about real slaves
markets.) Not only clan, but also the military nobility stood out. It is represented
bodies received both a larger land allotment and a share in the newly conquered lands.
lyakh. The tribes conquered by the Aztecs paid tribute, carried various duties
and had to give people for human sacrifice.
The Aztec state took shape a hundred years before the arrival of the Europeans, when
this tribe, who lived in southern Mexico, subjugated neighboring tribes, and
then extended its rule to the Pacific coast. Of unapproachable
foot, built in the middle of the lake of the main city of Tenochtitlan by the Aztecs by force
kept the vast country in fear and obedience. Brutally exploiting
her they have amassed great wealth. The conquered population hated the conquered
tel. The uprisings of the enslaved tribes took place incessantly. They use
the pants found allies at first.
Expeditions of the Spaniards, sent in 1516-1518. in the western
direction, managed to swim along the Yucatan, South and West
coast of the Gulf of Mexico and enter into relations with
local<князьками>... Here the Europeans found out what was next on
west lies richest country teeming with jewels.
To capture it, an expedition was equipped in 1519, at the head of which
was staged by the young hidalgo Fernand (Ferdinand) Cortez
"(1485-1547). Former law student at the University of Salamanca
theta, carried away by tales of adventures and mountains of gold -in No-
In the world, Cortez at the age of 19 went to Hispaniola. More education
bathroom than most of the adventurers who have settled here,
with a pen and a speech, adventurous and brave, he succeeded in
service and became rich: he was the secretary of the Viceroy, participated in the
flees and punitive expeditions against the natives, got land
first in Hispaniola, then in Cuba, where he became the mayor - great
leader of the city of Sant Jago. He equipped one of the ships at his own expense.
lei of the expedition.
The detachment with which Cortes in 1521 went to conquer
Mexico, consisted of 400 Spanish soldiers (including 16 horsemen
kov), 200 Indians and had 10 heavy and 3 light cannons. In the last
Cortez received reinforcements. These minor sy-
lami the Spaniards hoped to subjugate a large country. And this
they succeeded, since the Aztec state was very weak.
Mexico met the hopes of the Spaniards who were eagerly seeking the blessing
native metals. In her land there were rich deposits of gold and gray
The conquest of Peru was also carried out by a detachment of adventurers.
The population of Peru was slightly more high level development than
Mexican. The Incas are one of the tribes that lived in Peru, shortly before the arrival
yes Europeans (1538) were conquered by a number of neighboring tribes. A multiplier formed
change association. It was headed by the supreme Inca - the king and priest, surrounded
with a halo of divine origin. He was considered supreme
the owner of all the land. In the hands of his officials, who collected taxes from the
indigenous population, there was an irrigation system. Selected areas
countries were connected with the capital Cuzco by roads
busting on a mountainous, and in some places swampy territory. The state
naya mail - walkers.
The population subordinated to the Incas was ruled by local elders, hundreds of
chiefs and tribal leaders, but at their head were the chiefs
nicknames from the Incas. In the conquered lands, the Incas set up fortresses with garrisons.
The population was engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. The land was owned by the communities;
redistribution of arable land and pastures took place annually; hereditary was only
to the estate. Part of the land was allocated in favor of the government and the priests.
They worked the land with a hoe; no horses, no cattle Peruvian
used as a beast of burden; lamas were also given wool and meat.
The Peruvians had a fairly developed craft, especially ceramic
manufacturing and weaving; and mining and metallurgy. They did not know
iron, but they worked well copper, bronze, tin, silver. Inca conquerors
occupied a privileged position, they were only warriors and
tels. The conquered tribes paid them tribute in kind and performed various
work. The labor of slaves was also exploited.
Monuments of the fine arts of the Incas date back to the XII-XIII centuries.
n. NS. Preserved monumental architectural monuments from hewn cam-
nya showing that the Incas were skilled builders. They invented
nodular letter (kipu), which noble youth studied in the capital
school, where they also studied astronomy (the Incas knew the calendar), medicine,
horses and customs of the country and the national language of Quechua.
As in Mexico, the conquered population of Peru was
freely by the rule of the Incas, and this, as well as military superiority
the Spaniards made it easier for them to seize the country. After Balboa is
resolved the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean, the Spaniards became
settle on its coast in this area (named Zolo-
that Castile).
In 1519, the Spanish was founded on the Isthmus of Panama.
colony of Panama, from which the Spaniards launched an offensive on<изо-
gold-beating country<Виру>- Peru. She was captured
one of the closest associates of Balboa Francisque Pizarro.
A young shepherd in Spain, conquistador Pizarro
participated in many expeditions and raids of the Spaniards in the Caribbean
coast of South America. In the 20s, he and his friend
Almagro (the future conqueror of Chile) equipped several times
expeditions from Panama along the Pacific coast
regions of South America, which confirmed rumors of a rich southern
nom state. With the consent of the Spanish king, Pizarro
at the beginning of 1531 he moved on three ships from Panama, having only
130 people and 37 horses (then he received reinforcements, but no
when he did not have more than 500-600 soldiers). Using the internal
trenny struggle for the throne and treacherously capturing the reign-
his Inca, Pizarro took possession of the capital of the Inca state. Population
fell under the rule of the Spanish king.
During the conquest of the country, fabulous treasures accumulated in temples
and palaces were plundered. Spanish rule erased
from the face-land culture: In part
countries, in Potosi (now the territory of Bolivia), in 1545 were opened
you are the richest deposits of silver. The masses of the indigenous population, driven
Leading the Spaniards to develop them, died in the mines.
The described travels and discoveries represent
were the first and most important stage of penetrating
innovations of Western Europeans outside the European
py. In addition to the inner parts of open lands, there is absolutely no
remained known Australia and the seas washing it, the entire northern
part of the Pacific Ocean, almost all of North America, boundless
space of North Asia and the Arctic
In the second half of the XVI century. and in the 17th century. in geographical discoveries
The English and the Dutch are beginning to play an increasingly important role.
Very important discoveries are made by Russian sailors and<землепроход-
tsy>. The most important was the discovery of Australia. Geographers and cartographers
XVI century believed that for<уравновешивания>huge masses of land
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere must exist
large continent. He was often portrayed in fantastic outlines
tany on Spanish and Portuguese maps of the first half of the 16th century.
<Австральная>, i.e.<Южная>, the land was especially interested in the
lord colonizers of South America. They expected to find
there are rich deposits of gold and silver and numerous blacks
population - the working hands for their American mines and plantations
tions. In search<Южной>land at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. It was
equipped from Peru several expeditions that discovered a number of islands
in the South Pacific. The real Australia was
opened at the beginning of the 17th century. Dutch. In 1619, on the island of Java, they
founded the city of Batavia. Sailing south from the Sunda Islands,
Lands sailors familiarized themselves with the entire West Coast of Austria
ralia and half of the Southern, but took it for a part<Полярной
land>. In 1642, Abel Tasman, leaving Batavia, circled Austria
ralia and discovered a large island, which he called Van Diemen's Land
(now Tasmania). However, the new continent did not cause
of special interest: the poor, sparsely populated country did not promise
any wealth.
The North Pacific remained largely unknown
Western European seafarers. But in the middle of the XVI century. Jesuits
penetrated into Japan.
The west coast of North America was also gone for a long time.
known to Europeans. Only in the second half of the 18th century. spaniards
passed along California to the north and reached the 58th parallel. But
the Russians were ahead of them.
The persistent attempts of the British and Dutch to
ti to the Sunda and Moluccas, circling America from the north
(<Северо-западный проход>) or Asia (<Северо-восточный проход>).
They considered these paths shorter and more convenient, since
they were not owned by the Portuguese. Moving westward
English sailors of the XVI century. Frobisher and Davis and at the beginning of the 17th century. Bae-
fin and Goodson, reaching the islands, straits and bays, now wearing
their names penetrated only into the eastern part of the American Arctic.
ki; Englishmen (Chancellor) in search of the northeast passage in
1553 reached the mouth of the Northern Dvina, and the Dutch (Barents) in
1590 - Novaya Zemlya. However, all these areas have long been
are well known to Russian sailors, to whose help the English
and Dutch sailors have resorted repeatedly. Russian sailors
great merits in the discovery and survey of the coast
Europe and Asia, washed by the Arctic Ocean.
The first steps to conquer and plunder
East Indies, the transformation of Africa into a reserved hunting field for black-
skin- "such was the dawn of the capitalist era of production
leadership. These idyllic processes are the main points of the first
initial accumulation>.
The forms of exploitation of the local population that prevailed in
for a long time in Spanish America, formed on Hispan-
ole in the first years of Spanish rule. The aliens became
slavery of the Indians. Several batches of slaves were sent
Leno was brought to Spain and sold there. Columbus proposed to enslave
Indians, pointing out the enormous benefits that will receive from this
crown, but his offer was not accepted. Indians declared
<свободными>, and slavery, albeit with reservations, was prohibited. Ex-
the lord's government and the Catholic Church were not interested
Vans in the mass enslavement or destruction of Indians. Church
counted on a significant expansion of her flock, and therefore
the strengthening of influence in the colonies and an increase in incomes. Pra-
the government saw the natives as taxpayers and new subjects
n, did not give up the direct exploitation of their labor and
did not at all want to give them undividedly to the Castilian settlers,
who could easily turn into new rebellious lords.
But the colonists were actually stronger. They continued to hunt-
pay for the Indians and enslave them under the pretext that it is
cannibals. They enslaved the entire indigenous population, and the circumstances
The authorities forced the government to authorize it.
Calculations for huge incomes that will flow from open companies
lobby of countries, collapsed in. the first years after his voyage. First
initially Columbus, drawing in his imagination huge golden
wealth on Hispaniola, overlaid the entire population of the island over the age of 14
tax paid in gold sand or cotton. Will soon find out
it turned out that to collect the required amount of gold four times a year
the Indians are completely unable to: on Hispaniola it was
a little, and the Indians did not know how to systematically extract it. By
this contributions were replaced by heavy labor service for ore
nikah or on plots of land who complained to Castilian
settlers. Such awards, literally<разделы>(repartimienne-
then), lands have been produced on Hispaniol several times since
or several Indian villages, obliged to carry corvee in pol-
the owner's memory.
Another form of enslavement became even more widespread.
schenia -<энкомьенда> (<вверение >"" or patronage>. King of sting-
shaft (literally<вверял>) to the Castilian colonist of their Indians
<свободных>vassals - not in eternal possession, but only in temporary
the use for which the granted (<энкомендеро>) paid in
the treasury is usually a quarter of the income received. This is actually
complete enslavement was hypocritically covered by care<установить
closer ties between Indians and Christians> to convert
chit Indians to Christianity.
Later, in Mexico and Peru, the same was widely practiced.
grinding distribution with attachment to the land of the local population.
The settlement of Europeans in the Antilles brought doom
native population. Unbearable exhausting work on the plan-
tatsii and in mines, brutal suppression of frequent uprisings, epidemic
missions, famine led to the fact that on Hispaniola, out of a million
after 20 years of Spanish rule, only 10
15 thousand, and by the middle of the XVI century. natives in the Antilles are perfect
it’s gone.
To fill the ever-growing shortage of workers
since 1501, blacks from Africa have been imported to the islands. In 1518
the first contract (asiento) was concluded for the import of blacks. The number of neg-
The slave moat began to grow rapidly. They were more fit
to physical labor than the local population.
Consequences of the Great
geographic DISCOVERIES
In the colonies of the New World, capitalist relations are often
curled up; slavery and serfdom flourished here in the most
cruel forms. For the population of Africa, the monstrously developed
Xia and dominated for more than three centuries (until the middle of the 19th century)
the slave trade had the most disastrous consequences. Slave traders, for-
bathing a party of prisoners of war at the local princelings, inciting them
to attacks on neighbors, they sowed discord and enmity between tribes.
During this time, more than 100 million negligibles were exported to America from Africa.
moat (of which only a quarter of them may have reached
America, the rest died en route from terrible shipping conditions).
It was a real exsanguination of the continent, which
renewed the growth of its productive forces and reduced culture to the level of
nya lower than before the arrival of Europeans.
Great geographical discoveries led to
profound changes in economic life
Europe.<Внезапное расширение мирового рын-
ka, - wrote Marx, - increased diversity
goods in circulation, rivalry between
European nations in an effort to master Asian products
and American treasures, the colonial system is all a matter of
significantly contributed to the destruction of the feudal framework
production> The influence of geographical discoveries affected, one-
however, not all at once and far from being the same everywhere.
It should be noted (but should not be overstated)
important consequences: relocation of trade
centers within Western Europe and the so-called revolution
prices. As they expanded and took new paths of intercourse
Europe with India, as well as established and increasingly developed ties
with the New World, the importance of the Mediterranean
maritime trade and Italian cities as trade intermediaries
Europe with overseas countries. In the XVI century. the role of intermediaries of steel
play the cities of Lisbon, Seville and Antwerp. However, one should not connect
call it exclusively with geographical discoveries. If eco-
the nomic importance of Seville and Lisbon has greatly increased, then Antver-
Pen and earlier, already at the end of the 15th century, was the most important international
trade center for the sale of cloths from England, metals (tin, copper,
silver) and metal products from Germany, woolen fabrics
from Brabant and Flanders. .With the opening of new countries in Antwerp,
where the Portuguese began to buy what they needed for trade with India
silver, concentrated all the spice trade and colonial
new goods. Antwerp has become a pan-European monetary center,
in which merchant and banking firms of European countries had
their offices and agents.
PRICE REVOLUTION
AND ITS SOCIAL IMPACT
A new organization of trade and financial transactions has developed -
transactions on stock exchanges,
a new kind of profit has also developed - speculation. On stock
the exchange performed all kinds of financial and credit operations:
loans were made, bills were taken into account, passed from hand to hand
monetary obligations of large banking houses and European
monarchs. Speculation flourished here no less than on commodity
exchange. Commodity prices and stock prices were influenced by the most
various circumstances and events, including political ones,
Therefore, merchants and financiers needed to get quick and
detailed information. The agents of the trading firms carefully collected
all the news and wrote detailed reports to their patrons. These pre-
carrying were the beginnings of future newspapers.
In Europe in the 16th and first third of the 17th century. ob-
a significant increase in prices is given, conditionally called
ny<революцией цен>... The rise in prices did not
evenly across countries and over time. In Spain
by 1601, prices increased almost 4.5 times, in England - 4 times, in
France by the end of the 16th century - 2.5 times, in Italy - twice. At
the prices of agricultural products have risen by much
to a greater extent than industrial goods, items of the first
necessities have risen in price more than luxury goods. Highly
it is important that labor prices, i.e. wages, lagged far behind
from the growth of commodity prices. So, in England, wages have increased all-
th only by 30%, in France - by 25%. So the real
wages fell sharply.
<Революция цен>represents itself - a very complex phenomenon
and it cannot be associated with a gradual increase in prices that began
in a number of European countries in the second half of the 15th century, when he determined
growth and acceleration of trade, an increase in demand for agriculture
household goods due to the increase in the number of
villages in general and urban in particular, as well as gradual
an increase in the number of coins in circulation. Sharp and steady
rapid growth was associated in the 16th century. with the import to Europe of a large
the amount of gold and especially silver mined by cheap labor
bov in the newly opened colonies, as a result of which the price decreased
the precious metals themselves. With all their might, these phenomena made themselves felt
know from about the middle of the century. Prices rose faster in those
countries that have experienced an increase in
in them the amount of precious metals, which was associated with the formation
the established world commodity and money market (Spain, Porto-
Galia, France, Netherlands, England, Italy, western regions
German Empire). The emergence of the world market has contributed to
gradually spread<революции цен>and others,
economically less developed countries of Europe.
<Революция цен>affected the economic
the position of different groups and classes of feudal society. In the tree-
the landowners who surrendered their land did not win in the first place.
Liu for rent, as the rent has increased greatly due to
rise in prices for agricultural products and significantly exceeded
the size of the "fixed feudal monetary rent. Finally>
the peasants who paid rent to their lords also won.
In the production of industrial goods in a better position
capitalist entrepreneurs started to work as
the real wages of hired workers were increased, while the
rising prices for goods. Merchants who shared with enterprises also won
recipients of the surplus value produced by the worker and ex
the broad strata who have been operating as buyers and creditors
small artisans and handicraftsmen.
Suffered from<революции цен>broad strata of the population: the cross-
young people who ran a small economy that did not produce for the market and forced
data often work as a laborer or engage in subsidiary trades
handicraft nature, as well as those peasants who paid feo-
distant rent in products or unfixed rent. Lost
those nobles, and they were the majority, who received from their
residents of a fixed monetary feudal rent, did not know
significant domain possessions and did not run their own household,
designed for the market.
The city is lost from<революции цен>, first of all, a wide
some strata of the population who lived on wages, and small commodity
manufacturers and workshop foremen, nominally independent, but
actually already working for buyers and manufacturers.
<Революция цен>, thus contributed to the expropriation of chalk
who is a commodity producer both in the city and in the countryside. Marx summed up
mirrored the consequences<революции цен>So:<С одной стороны, обес-
appreciation wages and land rent, and on the other - growth
industrial profits. In other words: to the extent that
the class of landowners and the working class went into decline,
feudal lords and the people, the class of capital
talists, the bourgeoisie>.
Everywhere a decline in wages and an increase in capitalism
income, the gap between rent and feudal rents
that led to the strengthening of class antagonisms to the exacerbation of the class
owl fight. Between the lord - the feudal owner and
the peasant-holder intensifies the struggle for land, the struggle for
transformation of feudal holding into free small property
ness. The struggle for wages begins between labor and capital
fee. The outcome of this struggle, which went on for almost three centuries,
depended on the specific balance of class forces and was decided on a case-by-case basis.
Doy to the country in different ways.
