The formation of the Kiev state is a long, complex process of uniting various tribes of the Eastern Slavs. The first written evidence of the Eastern Slavs dates back to the turn of the 1st millennium A.D. The Slavs are reported by Greek, Roman, Arab, Syrian historians. The Slavs then represented a single ethnic community. They lived east of the Germans: from the Elbe and Oder to the Donets, Oka and Upper Volga; from the Baltic Sea to the middle and lower reaches of the Danube and the Black Sea. Their settlement in the VI-VIII centuries. It went in three directions: south to the Balkan Peninsula, east and north along the East European Plain, and west to the middle Danube and the interfluve of the Oder and Elbe. The result was the division of the Slavs into three branches: southern, eastern and western.
In the VI century. there is a separation from a single Slavic community of the branch of the Eastern Slavs, on the basis of which the Old Russian nationality is formed. The Eastern Slavs lived in tribal unions, of which there were about a dozen and a half. Each union included separate tribes, of which there were 100-200 on the Russian plain. Each individual tribe, in turn, was divided into many clans.
Each tribal union had its own territory. The largest was the tribe of Polyans, who lived along the middle reaches of the Dnieper (in the region of Kiev - the future capital the old Russian state). (*) The land of the glades was called "rus" or "ros" after one of the tribes who lived along the river Ros. According to academician B.A. Rybakov, as well as some other scientists, this name was then transferred to the entire territory of the Eastern Slavs. There are also other opinions. (*) The chronicle associates the name of the city of Kiev with the name of Prince Kyi, who reigned in the 6th century. together with his brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the middle Dnieper region. The city founded by the brothers was named after Kiya.
To the west of the glades lived Drevlyans, Buzhanians, Volynians, Dulebs. To the north of the glades are the northerners. Along the Moskva and Oka rivers - Vyatichi, in the upper Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina - Krivichi and Polochans. Ilmen Slavs lived around Lake Ilmen. Uchiha, Croats and Tivertsy lived along the Dniester. Rodimichi are on the river Sozha. Between Pripyat and Berezina - Dregovichi.
The Baltic peoples in the west were neighbors of the Eastern Slavs: Western Slavs (Poles, Slovaks, Czechs); in the south the Pechenegs and the Khazars, in the east - the Volga Bulgaria and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes.
The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. This determined their sedentary lifestyle. They grew rye, wheat, barley, millet, turnips, cabbage, beets, carrots, radishes, cucumbers. Potatoes were brought from America later in the 18th century. The southern regions were ahead of the northern ones in their development. In the north, in the area of taiga forests, the dominant farming system was slash and burn. In the first year, the trees were cut down, they dried up. In the second year they were burned and grain was sown in the ashes. For two or three years the plot gave a good harvest, then the land was depleted and had to go to another plot. The main instruments of labor were an ax, a hoe, a knotted harrow, a spade, a sickle, flails, stone grain of theca and hand millstones. * The glades were named, according to the historian N.M. Karamzin, from "their pure fields." (Karamzin N.M. History of the Russian state .- T.I.- M .: 1989.- P.48.). Some scholars believe that Prince Rurik was from the Rus tribe, but most modern scholars deny the existence of such a tribe. Most historians agree that this word is of Scandinavian origin, the prince's warriors were called "Rus".
V southern regions the leading farming system was the "pereg". There was a lot of fertile land and the plot of land was sown for 2 - 3 years. With the depletion of the land, they moved to another site. As the main tool of labor, a ralo was used, and later - a wooden plow with an iron ploughshare.
The Slavs were also engaged in cattle breeding, bred pigs, cows, small cattle. In the south, oxen were used as draft animals, and horses in the forest zone. Other activities of the Eastern Slavs include fishing, hunting, bee-keeping (honey collection). productive forces demanded huge expenditures of labor from the Slavs. This kind of work could only be done by a large team. Therefore, the Slavs lived in the villages (*) clan communities (clans), they bore the name "mir", "rope" (**) clans had common property. The clans were headed by elders chosen by the whole clan. At the national assembly (veche), all the most important affairs of the tribe were decided. The prince stood at the head of the tribe, uniting several clans. The tribe had its own militia, from which the prince's military squad was replenished. The prince and military leaders were also selected from the best people... The development of intertribal ties, the organization of joint military campaigns, the subordination of the weaker tribes by strong tribes led to the unification of the tribes, to the formation of tribal unions, which were also headed by princes.
Throughout the VI-IX centuries. the productive forces grew, tribal ties changed, and trade developed. There is a further development of arable farming, from which crafts are distinguished. Tribal communities disintegrate, paired families stand out from them, which become a separate production unit. Several families are united in a neighboring community. Each such community owned a certain territory. Her possessions were divided into public and personal. The house, household land, livestock, inventory were the personal property of the family. In common use there were land, meadows, forests, water bodies, lands. Arable land and mows were to be divided between families.
The emergence of personal property led to the seizure of large tracts of land by the former tribal nobility: princes, elders, military leaders into hereditary property (feud), to the emergence of the rich * "Village" - from the word "turf" - the top layer of soil. ** "Rope" - a rope, which was used to measure a piece of human land. They used the tribal governing bodies, the squad to consolidate their power over the ordinary members of the community. Gradually, the process of the formation of a class feudal society went on. The peasants were called smerds. Most of them paid tribute directly to the prince. Gradually, an increasing number of smerds fell into dependence on boyars and vigilantes. A category of peasants personally dependent on the feudal lords emerged: a slave - a slave who did not have his own farm and worked at the court of the feudal lord, a ryadovich - a peasant who concluded an agreement with the feudal lord and performed certain duties on it, a procurement peasant who took a loan from the feudal lord (kupu ) and for this he worked as a feudal lord. The main feudal duties were formed - quitrent, corvee. (*) Peasant farms and farms of feudal lords were of a natural nature. They strove to provide themselves with everything they needed. They haven't worked on the market yet. However, with the growth of the productive forces, the improvement of the tools of labor, surplus products appeared that could be exchanged for handicraft goods. Cities began to take shape as centers of trade and crafts. They were also strongholds of defense against external enemies.
The city, as a rule, arose on a hill at the confluence of rivers. central part the city was called the Kremlin, Krom or Detinets. It was protected by a rampart on which a fortress wall was erected. There were the courtyards of princes, the largest feudal lords, temples, monasteries. The Kremlin was in the shape of a triangle. On both sides it was protected by rivers - a natural water barrier. On the third side, a moat was dug, filled with water. The bargaining was located behind the moat. Settlements of artisans adjoined the Kremlin. The handicraft part of the city was called a posad, and individual handicraft areas inhabited by people of one specialty were called settlements.
In most cases, cities were built along trade routes. One of the most important trade routes was the route from the "Varangians to the Greeks": through the Western Dvina and the Volkhov with its tributaries, through a system of drags, ships were dragged to the Dnieper, reached the Black Sea and further along the sea coast - to Byzantium. This path was fully developed in the 9th century. * "Obrok" - payment to the feudal lord in money or food. "Barshchina" - working out duties for the feudal lord Another of the most ancient trade routes was the Volga route, connecting Russia with the countries of the East. Communication with Western Europe was maintained by land roads. By the time the Old Russian state was formed, there were already several large cities: Kiev, Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Murom, etc. In total in Russia in the 9th century. there were 25 major cities. The tribal reigns of the Eastern Slavs united into a single state in the 9th century. By the time the Old Russian state was formed, three large Slavic tribal unions were united: Kuyava - the land around Kiev, Slavia - the region of Lake Ilmen with the center of Novgorod, Artania - as if the area was not determined by historians, the Baltic States, Carpathians, North-Eastern Russia are called.
The chronicler of the beginning of the XII century, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor connects the formation of the Old Russian state with the vocation of the Varangian princes to Novgorod, three brothers: Rurik, Sineus, Truvor (*). According to this legend, the northern tribes, Ilmenian Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern Slavs, glades and their neighbors were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians drove the Varangians across the sea. But they could not end the internecine war among themselves in any way. The Novgorodians who gathered at the Council decided to send for the Varangian princes: "Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. So go to reign and reign over us" (*), the chronicle says. So power over Novgorod and the surrounding lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes: Rurik settled in Novgorod, Sineus - on Beloozero, Truvor - in Izborsk. There are other historical versions as well. So in the Novgorod chronicle of the late 15th century. a new version of the appearance of the Varangians appeared, according to which Rurik and his squad were called to serve in Novgorod on the advice of the mayor Gostomysl. After the death of the childless Gostomysl, power in the city was seized by Rurik.
At the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. in "The Legend of the Great Dukes of Vladimir", written by the Tver monk Spiridon, Rurik is a descendant of Caesar Augustus, invited to reign from Prussia.
In the Joachim Chronicle of the 17th century. as presented by the first Russian historian Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev, Rurik is a native of the West Slavic lands, the grandson of Gostomysl, the son of his beloved daughter Umila. "Varangians" (Normans) - immigrants from Scandinavia.
In 1724, Peter I invited two German scientists Johann Gottfried Baer and Gerard Friedrich Miller to the Academy of Sciences, who showed that the chronicle was distorted, since the names of the Rurik brothers are Scandinavian words that meant that Rurik came with his retinue ("Truvor") and his house ("synechus"). They showed that the name "Rus" is of Scandinavian origin.
Empress Elizaveta Petrovna instructed Lomonosov to write a generalizing work on Russian history. Lomonosov denied the Varangian origin of the word "Rus", the version about the organizing role of the Varangians in the history of Russia. Based on the "Legend of the Great Dukes of Vladimir" Lomonosov argued that Rurik was from Prussia, and Prussia was "Russia", and the Russians were Slavs. XX centuries. the Norman (Varangian) origin of Russia did not raise doubts among the scientists N.M. Karamzin, M.N. Pogodin, S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky, M.N. Pokrovsky, V.V. Mavrodin.
Since the 30s. the Scandinavian version is being revised apparently for political reasons. It was used by Hitler as a practical guide to aggressive actions. The inferiority of the Slavs, their inability for independent development was proved. The thesis was put forward about the organizing role of the Germans in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Rus. One of the famous Russian anti-Normanists was Academician Rybakov, the author of solid monographs on the history of ancient Russia.
Until now, science has not been able to illuminate in detail ancient history Eastern Slavs. Most scholars believe that the Varangian princes stood at the origins of the statehood of the Eastern Slavs. However, the process of state formation among the Slavs was already underway and could be completed without the intervention of the Normans.
After Rurik came to Novgorod, power in Kiev, in the land of the glades, where the brothers Kiy, Khoriv and Shchek once ruled, were seized by other Varangians - Askold and Dir, but according to some sources Askold and Dir were not Varangians, but continuers of the Kiya dynasty. After the death of Rurik, power in Novgorod was seized by Oleg, in whose care Rurik left his young Igor. In 882 * The Tale of Ancient Rus. L. 1983. S. 132. Oleg made a campaign on Smolensk, Lyubech and Kiev, where Askold and Dir were captured and then killed. Oleg began to reign in Kiev, made it the capital of the united state. He conquered the Drevlyans, northerners and Radimichs, who had previously paid tribute to the Khazars, fought with the streets and Tivertsy. The advance along the Danube, the desire to seize the trade route along the Black Sea, the Crimean coast led to a clash with Byzantium. In 907, Oleg organized a sea voyage to Constantinople. The Russian fleet had 2 thousand boats, each with 40 men. The campaign was successful, the Russians received a tribute of 24 thousand hryvnia, Oleg hung his shield on the gates of the city. Byzantium asked for peace. Under the peace treaty of 911, Russia received the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople. The last years of Oleg's life are covered with legends. The story of the "prophetic" Oleg (*) the death predicted by the Magi from his horse was told by A. Pushkin.
Igor, who ruled after Oleg (912 - 945), made two more campaigns against Byzantium. The first campaign in 941 ended in failure. In the decisive battle, the Byzantines defeated the Russian fleet by burning it with "Greek fire" (a combustible mixture). The second campaign in 944 ended with a new peace treaty, less beneficial for Russia than the 911 treaty.
As a result of a stubborn struggle, Igor subdued the Ulitsy and the Tivertsy, the border of Kievan Rus was advanced beyond the Dnieper.
A long struggle continued with the Drevlyans. Igor increased the amount of tribute collected from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor's campaigns in the lands of the Drevlyans, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the princely squad and killed Igor. His wife Olga (945-969) severely took revenge on the Drevlyans. The first embassy of the Drevlyans, which offered Olga to replace Igor as the husband of their prince Mal, was buried alive in the ground, the second was burnt in a bathhouse in Kiev. According to the chronicle, Olga ordered the Drevlyans to give her three pigeons and three sparrows from each yard as a tribute. A lit tow was tied to the feet of the pigeons, and when they flew into their old nests, a fire broke out in the Drevlyansky capital. As a result, the town of Koroten 'burned down. The fire killed about 5 thousand people. The land of the Drevlyans was finally annexed to Kiev. However, Olga was forced to organize the collection of tribute. * “Prophetic” - wise, cunning. She established "lessons" - the amount of tribute and "graveyards" - places for collecting tribute. The territorial growth and strengthening of Russia continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969 - 972) (*) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980 - 1015).
The Old Russian state included the lands of the Vyatichi (along the Oka). The power of Russia extended to North Caucasus... The territory of the Old Russian state expanded into westward, including Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus. During the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich (1019-1054), further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. In 1030, Yuryev (Tartu) was built in the Baltic States, in 1031 the Cherven cities of southwestern Russia were annexed again, in 1036 the Chernigov and Tmutarakan lands were subordinated. In 1038-1040. Yaroslav made a campaign in the Lithuanian lands and in 1040 he subdued Southern Finland. In 1036 he defeated the Pechenegs and forced them to go beyond the Danube. Their place in the southern Russian steppes was taken first by the Oghuz Turks, then by the Polovtsians, who from the 60s. XI century raided Russian lands.
Kievan Rus was an early feudal state, since it combined the remnants of the clan system and new feudal features. The supreme power belonged to the great Kiev prince. The prince held administrative and judicial power (there was no separation of these functions). His responsibility was to maintain external security and protect the earth from enemy attacks. The prince led foreign policy, concluded treaties with other states. the prince was hereditary.
The formation of feudal relations in Russia proceeded as a whole along a common European type: from state forms to patrimonial ones. ... But unlike Western Europe in Russia this process was much slower. * Svyatoslav was a man of average height, slender, with blue eyes, a flat nose. He shaved his beard and head, leaving a long tuft of hair and a long mustache on his head. A gold earring with two pearls and a ruby glistened in his ear. Svyatoslav walked like a leopard. During the campaigns, he slept under open air resting your head on the saddle. Going on campaigns, he warned his opponents: "I'm going to you." Svyatoslav fought with the Pechenegs, who constantly threatened Russia with their raids. He defeated the Khazar Kaganate. He fought with Byzantium for the Balkan Peninsula. On the way from Byzantium to Kiev, Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pechenegs and killed. From the skull of Svyatoslav, the Pechenezh Khan ordered to make a cup, bound with gold.
In the 9th century, a system of exploitation of the personally free population by the military-service nobility (squad) of the Kiev princes was formed by collecting tribute "polyudye". His squad lived at the prince's court. With her help, the prince ruled the state. He consulted with her, decided state and military issues, with her help collected tribute from the population (in money and in kind). The unit of taxation was a separate peasant farm. The population performed a number of other duties: military, transport, participated in the construction of fortresses, roads, bridges. The prince resolved all major issues with the Council of Boyars. There was a special court of the prince. In some parts of Russia, local princes ruled, subject to the great Kiev prince. The Kiev prince strove to replace them with his henchmen. Individual princely warriors were given control over entire regions with the right to levy tribute (regional rulers appointed by the prince were called "posadniks"). At first, the tribute was collected during the "polyudya" - periodic detours of the prince with the squad of the subordinate lands. Then a permanent military-administrative organization was introduced on the ground, the places of collection and the amount of the tribute were determined.
In the X century. patrimonial land tenure of the Kiev princes arose. In the XI century. land ownership appears among representatives of the elite, the service nobility, boyars and the Christian church. In the XII-first half of the XIII centuries. patrimonial land tenure is growing, but its role in comparison with the state-feudal forms remains secondary. Most of the peasants continue to be directly dependent on state power and are exploited by collecting tribute and other state taxes. The armed forces of the ancient Russian state consisted of the grand duke's squad, the princes and boyars subordinate to him, and the people's militia (warriors). The number of troops reached 60-80 thousand people. Used in Russia and troops of mercenaries: Pechenegs, Cumans, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Poles, Varangian-Normans, but their role was insignificant.
The Old Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of wood and sheathed with boards along the sides. Russian ships sailed in the Black, Azov, Caspian and Baltic seas.
In Kievan Rus, the remnants (traditions) of the primitive communal system were still very strong. So, for example, the local population, urban and rural, decided their affairs at veche (gatherings), elected their elders, who defended their interests before the princely administration. The decisions of the veche were obligatory for everyone, including the local princes. There were cases when at the veche a decision was made to expel one or another prince disagreeable to the people and to call another prince.
At the end of the X century. Christianity was officially introduced in Russia. The introduction of a single religion contributed to the unification of individual Slavic lands into a single state, the further development of feudal relations. In the pre-Christian era, the Eastern Slavs were pagans. They deified the forces of nature, believed in good and evil spirits. Their most important gods were: Perun - the god of thunder and lightning, war; Svarog is the god of fire; Dazhdbog (aka Yarilo, Horos) - the god of the sun and fertility; Volos is the god of wealth and fertility; Stribog - god of thunder and bad weather; Mokosh - the goddess who protected the female part of the economy; Veres god, patron saint of cattle breeding; Semark is the god of the underworld.
The Eastern Slavs had temples - places where prayers took place and sacrifices were made to idols. A noticeable role in the life of the Slavs was played by magicians-sorcerers, faithful, etc. There was a cult of ancestors. The remains of the dead were burned and mounds were poured over them. First, family tombs were arranged, then with the disintegration of the tribal system and the appearance of a paired family, separate burial mounds began to be erected over each burial.
Christianity began to penetrate into Russia early in the midst of the nobility. Back in the IX century. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople noted that Russia had changed its pagan superstition to the Christian faith. The vigilantes of Prince Igor were Christians; in 946, Princess Olga adopted Christianity.
A special role in the adoption of Christianity belongs to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (Saint).
At first, proceeding from the need to create a single state, Vladimir made an attempt to unite all the pagan gods of the Eastern Slavs, to create a single pantheon of gods in Kiev. A wooden statue of Perun with a silver head and a golden mustache, a statue of Dazhd-God, Horos, Semargl, Striborg, Moksha were brought to Kiev. At the statues of the gods, a ceremony of sacrifice took place, including, as the chronicler points out, human ones. However, the attempt to unite the deities worshiped in different parts of the country failed, but the interests of the country's unity demanded the adoption of a common religion.
Vladimir, assessing the political role of Christianity, decided to make it the state religion in Russia. It is not known exactly when Vladimir was baptized and where. There are several versions. According to one of them, Vladimir was baptized in 987 in Kiev. The chronicle also points to another date.
The events took place in the following way. The Byzantine government turned to Vladimir with a request for military assistance to suppress the uprising in the subordinate lands. Olga needed Christianity after Igor's death. As a pagan, she had to commit suicide. After becoming a Christian, she relinquished this obligation, as the Christian Church considered suicide to be the greatest sin. Olga adopted the name Elena in Christianity.
Vet Vladimir demanded an alliance with Russia from Byzantium, offered to seal it by his marriage to Anna, the sister of Emperor Basil II. The Byzantine government was forced to agree to this. The Russian army quickly liquidated the uprising in Asia Minor, but Vasily II refused to fulfill the terms of the agreement. Then Vladimir moved his army and in 989 occupied Korsun. Vasily II was forced to concede - to agree to the marriage of Vladimir to Anna. In 990 in Korsun, Vladimir was baptized and married Anna, Christianity was officially declared the religion of the Kiev state. At the end of the summer of 990, Vladimir returned to Kiev and baptized residents on the banks of the Dnieper. There are other dates for the adoption of Christianity in Russia. The year 988 is considered to be the official date.
Christianity, which affirmed the divine origin of power, strengthened the power of the prince, the territorial unity of the Old Russian state. The adoption of Christianity was of great international importance, Russia became equal to other Christian countries, relations with which were significantly expanded. The introduction of Christianity played a large role in the development of Russian culture, contributed to the introduction to the higher Byzantine culture.
With the adoption of Christianity in Russia, a special feudal-religious organization arose. The Russian Orthodox Church was headed by a metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Separate regions of Russia were headed by bishops. The priests in the cities obeyed them.
The entire population of the country was obliged to pay "tithes" (one-tenth of the income) to the church. Subsequently, the size of the tax changed, but the name remained the same. Church institutions received large land plots and soon became the largest feudal owners. During the 11th century, episcopates were founded in Yuryev, Belgorod, Novgorod, Rostov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk and Turov. Several large monasteries arose in Kiev (the first in the first half of the 11th century was the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, which received its name from underground caves where the monks settled). In total in the X century. 10 wooden and 1 stone church were built, in the XI century - 700 wooden and 19 stone churches, 18 monasteries, in the XII century. - 690 wooden and 69 stone churches, 37 monasteries, in the XIII century 110 wooden, 19 stone churches, 35 monasteries. The people did not always welcome the new faith, especially the Greek priests and church fees. The process of the Christianization of Rus was rather complicated.
With the formation of the state, there was legal system... The collection of written laws of the Old Russian state is "Russkaya Pravda" (late 11th - early 12th centuries), adopted under Yaroslav the Wise and supplemented under his descendants. Yaroslav's Pravda was the first part of the short edition of Russkaya Pravda. Yaroslav's laws dealt with disputes between free people and, above all, among the prince's warriors. "Yaroslav's Truth" did not cancel, but only limited the blood feud to the circle of the closest relatives.
In the late 60s - early 70s. The "Brief Edition of Russkaya Pravda" was supplemented by a number of articles called "Pravda Yaroslavichi". The purpose of the additions is to protect the right of the feudal lord to his fiefdom. From "Pravda Yaroslavichi" we learn about the structure of the patrimony. A patrimony is the possession of an individual feudal lord, inherited. The dominant class of feudal lords was formed from local princes and boyars, who fell into dependence on Kiev, and from the husbands (warriors) of the Kiev prince, who received the holding (or fiefdom) of the land. The Kiev princes themselves had large holdings. The center of the patrimony was the courtyard, where the mansions of the feudal lord, the living quarters of his courtyard servants, stables, a cattle yard, and also the nearest lands were located. At the head of the management of the patrimony was a manager - an ognische (from the word "ognische" - an economy). The patrimonial administration consisted of: a stableman, a driveway (tax collector), tiuns (clerks), village elders, etc.
The wealth of the fiefdom was the land. The princely border was protected by law, and an extremely high fine was paid for its violation. Feudal-dependent smerds, serfs, servants worked on the land. The work was supervised by the warden (plowed) elders. There were also artisans in the patrimony.
The growth of the feudal estates went at the expense of the peasants. The land, which was previously peasant property, fell into the ownership of the feudal lord. The peasants were called smerds, people, syabras. The number of personally free smerds who paid tribute to the prince's treasury gradually decreased. The peasants in various ways fell into dependence on the feudal lords. Some peasants, deprived of the means of production, were enslaved by the feudal lords, using their need for tools, implements, seeds, etc. Other peasants were forced by the Kiev prince to transfer from the land to the patrimonial power of the feudal lords.
With the expansion of estates and the enslavement of the smerds, the term "servants", which previously meant slaves, began to apply to all peasants dependent on the feudal lords. Smerds had their own inventory (plow, ralo, etc.), a small number of livestock: a horse, a cow, two sheep for a peasant farm. After the death of a dependent smerd who had no male offspring, his property passed to the feudal lord.
For escaping from the feudal lord, dependent peasants turned into slaves (slaves), deprived of all rights. The feudal lord had the right to beat his peasants. The peasants paid the feudal lord quitrent (in kind) and worked out the corvee for him.
"Pravda Yaroslavichi" abolished blood feud, increased the difference in payment for the murder of various categories of the population, thereby reflecting the concern of the feudal state for the life and property of the feudal lords. The largest fine was paid for the murder of senior warriors, firemen, princely entrances - 80 hryvnia. The life of free people (husbands) was estimated at 40 hryvnia, the life of rural and military elders, as well as artisans - at 12 hryvnia, smerds who were in feudal dependence, and slaves - at 5 hryvnia. The forms of social protest of the masses against feudal enslavement were varied: from flight from the feudal lord to armed "robbery", from violations of the boundaries of feudal estates (plowing of boundaries, destruction of notches in trees) to an open uprising. The community (peace, rope) served as a means of protecting the peasants, which took its peasant under the protection, paying a “wild” (collective) virus for him. Mass popular uprisings swept across Russia in 1068-1078, in 1113.
The strongest was the uprising in Kiev in 1068. It broke out as a result of the defeat suffered by the sons of Yaroslav: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod from the Polovtsy on the Alta River. In Kiev, a veche was held, the people of Kiev asked the Kiev prince Izyaslav to issue weapons in order to fight the Polovtsy again. The Yaroslavichs refused them this. Then the people defeated the princely palace, the palaces of the rich boyars. Izyaslav fled to Poland and only with the help of the Poles returned to the Kiev throne in 1069, inflicting a bloody massacre with the rebels. Mass popular demonstrations also took place in Novgorod, Rostov-Suzdal land.
In 1113, another major uprising broke out in Kiev. The reason for the uprising was the usurious activity of the Kiev prince Svyatopolk (1093-1113). He would buy up salt and then sell it at a higher price. After his death, an uprising broke out in Kiev. The rebels defeated the courtyards of the thousand, boyars, usurers, clergy. The frightened nobility invited Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113 - 1125), the Pereyaslavl prince, to reign in Kiev. Monomakh was forced to make concessions to the people by issuing the "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh". The charter streamlined the collection of interest by usurers, improved the legal status of the merchant class, and regulated the entry into servitude. The charter of Vladimir Monomakh became part of the "Extensive edition" of Russkaya Pravda "XII - XIII centuries. The" Extensive edition "contained new articles on buying and selling, loans, mortgages, inheritance, guardianship.
During the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, the ancient Russian state reached a high level of development. Cities were the centers of developed culture. In them, by the XII century. there were 60 craft specialties. A significant part of the crafts was based on metallurgical production. If in the village blast-furnace production has not yet separated from blacksmithing, then in the cities in the field of processing iron and steel, 16 specialties have appeared. Craftsmen used welding, casting, metal forging, welding and hardening of steel. In the XI-XII centuries. more than 150 types of iron and steel products were produced.
Ancient Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. In craft workshops, tools were made (plowshares, axes, chisels, pincers, etc.), weapons (shields, chain mail, spears, helmets, swords, etc.). In the field of artistic craft, Russian craftsmen mastered the complex technique of grain (making patterns from the smallest grains of metal), filigree (making patterns from the finest wire), figured casting, the technique of black (making a black background for patterned silver plates), cloisonné enamel. Wonderful items with gold and silver inlays on iron and copper have survived.
Pottery, leatherworking, woodworking and stone-making crafts have also developed significantly. Vladimir Monomakh was the grandson of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. His reign is associated with the appearance in Russia of the crown of Russian tsars - the Cap of Monomakh. In his reign, the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled.
to order and to the market. However, the social division of labor in the country was still weak. The village lived on subsistence farming. The penetration of small retail traders into the village from the city did not break it.
The centers of trade were the cities. There were markets where both food and handicrafts were sold. Foreign merchants also brought their goods there. One of largest cities Rus was Kiev. Under Yaroslav the Wise, Kiev competed with Constantinople. It had 400 churches and 8 markets. In 1037 St. Sophia Cathedral was erected on the spot where Yaroslav defeated the nomads. At the same time, under Yaroslav, the Golden Gate was built, the main entrance to the capital. The population of Kiev was tens of thousands of people.
In the XI century. there were 90 cities in Russia. Big cities: Kiev, Smolensk, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod and others were administrative, judicial and military centers. The heyday of ancient Russian cities falls on the XI-XII centuries.
The foreign trade of Rus was developed. Russian merchants traded in the possessions Arab Caliphate... The Dnieper path connected Russia with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kiev to Moravia, Czech Republic, Poland, South Germany; from Novgorod and Polotsk - along the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, Polish Pomorie and further to the west. Mainly raw materials were exported from Russia. With the development of handicrafts, the export of handicraft products increased. The foreign market received furs, wax, honey, resin, flax, linen fabrics, silver items, weapons, locks, carved bone and so on. Imported luxury goods, fruits, spices, paints, etc. Goods came to Russia from Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland, Sweden, Byzantium, from the Arab countries. The princes tried to protect the interests of Russian merchants by special treaties with foreign states. The "Extensive edition of" Russkaya Pravda "provided for some measures to protect the property of merchants from losses associated with wars and other circumstances. Under an agreement with the Greeks (911), Russian merchants had the right to live for a month for free in Constantinople. Silver bars were used as money. , foreign coins Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich issued a minted silver coin.
Russia maintained political, trade and cultural ties with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Germany, Norway, Sweden, France and England. Dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes testify to the international importance of Russia: Yaroslav the Wise was married to a Swedish princess, his daughters were married to French, Hungarian, and Norwegian kings. Yaroslav's sister married the Polish king. Yaroslav's granddaughter - for the Hungarian king. Yaroslav's son Vsevolod married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. Vsevolod's son Vladimir married an English princess. His sister married the German emperor, his daughter married the Hungarian king.
2.Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation.
During the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Mstislav (11251132), the desire of certain lands to separate from Kiev began to appear. He still managed to keep the unity of the Russian lands for some time, but after his death, Russia fell apart into a dozen independent principalities. The period of feudal fragmentation began in the 30s. XII century and lasted until the end of the 15th century. By this time, a large boyar land tenure had developed, often not inferior in wealth to the grand ducal. The domination of subsistence farming in feudal estates led to the fact that all basic needs were satisfied within the estates, and relations with the market were weak. Any region of the country could exist independently. The feudal lords were interested in strong princely power in the localities, which would quickly suppress any disobedience of the people.
The local boyars were the main political force in the separation process. Contradictions arose between the boyars and local princes, a struggle for power. In different lands, it had a different character. In Novgorod and Pskov, the boyars managed to subjugate the prince, and boyar feudal republics were established there. In other lands, where the princes were able to suppress the boyars, power was established in the form of a monarchy.
Feudal fragmentation appeared new form state-political organization that replaced the early feudal monarchy. It was an inevitable stage in the period of feudalism. Kiev became equal among equal principalities.
Consider the history of the largest of them: the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the Galicia-Volyn principality, the Novgorod republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal land. occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. The area was rich in fertile soils, well protected from enemies. There were profitable trade routes connecting northeastern Russia with the countries of the East and Western Europe.
The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri (1125-1157), reigned in the Suzdal land. For his constant efforts to expand the territory of the principality, he was nicknamed Dolgoruky. He devoted his whole life to the struggle for the Grand Duke's throne. He led the extensive construction of fortified cities. Around 1147, the chronicle first mentions Moscow, 5 (*) 0 built on the site of the former estate of the boyar Kuchka, confiscated by Yuri Dolgoruky.
Having captured the city of Kiev, Yuri Dolgoruky did not forget about his North-Eastern lands. His son Andrey was also attracted there, who understood that Kiev had lost its former power. In 1155 Andrey and his entourage fled from Kiev. Having seized the shrine of Russia, the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, he hastened to the Rostov-Suzdal land, where he was invited by the local boyars. So he became the prince of North-Eastern Russia. The reign of Andrew (1157-1174) was the time of a fierce struggle with the local boyars. He moved the capital from Rostov to the small town of Vladimir-on-Klyazma, which he built up with extraordinary splendor. The white-stone Golden Gate was built here, the majestic Assumption Cathedral was built. 6 km from the capital, Andrey founded his country residence"Bogolyubovo", for which he received the nickname "Bogolyubsky". Here in 1174 he was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the boyars, headed by the boyars Kuchkovichi, the former owners of Moscow.
Andrey's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Bolshoye Gnezdo (1176-1212) .. He had a large family, which is why he got this nickname. Vsevolod cruelly dealt with the conspiratorial boyars who killed his brother. Power in the principality was finally established in the form of a monarchy. Vsevolod significantly expanded the territory of the principality. The author of "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" said about Vsevolod that he could "splash the Volga with oars, and drain the Don with helmets."
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality retained its primacy among the Russian lands even after the death of Vsevolod. However, in 1238 it was conquered by the Mongol-Tatars and disintegrated into a number of smaller lands.
Galicia-Volyn principality. occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and to the south of them the territory between the Dniester and Prut rivers. There were fertile lands, vast forests and large reserves of salt, which were exported to all neighboring countries. Convenient geographical position allowed to conduct active foreign trade. As in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, there was a significant economic upturn.
In the first years of separation from Kiev, Galicia and Volyn principality existed separately. The unification took place under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich (1170-1205). in 1199. In 1169 Andrey Bogolyubsky captured Kiev and the rulers of North-Eastern Russia began to bear the title of Grand Dukes.
In 1203 he captured Kiev and took the title of Grand Duke. One of the largest states in Europe was formed. The eldest son of Roman Mstislavich Daniel (1221-1264) was 4 years old when his father died. He had to endure a long struggle for the throne with the Hungarian, Polish, Russian princes. Only in 1238 did he manage to establish his power in the principality. In 1240, after capturing Kiev, he again united Southwestern and Kievan Rus. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was captured by the Mongol-Tatars, and a hundred years later the lands of Galich were part of Poland, and Volyn - part of Lithuania.
Novgorod Republic. - one of the largest political centers of the period of feudal fragmentation. The Novgorod land occupied a huge territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper Volga, from Of the White Sea to the Urals. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an extremely favorable geographical position: the city was located at the crossroads of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium. The Novgorod land was far from the nomads and did not experience disasters from their raids.
Novgorod earlier than other lands fought for its independence from Kiev. Using the popular uprising of 1136, the Novgorod boyars managed to defeat the prince in the struggle for power. Power in Novgorod was established in the form of a feudal boyar republic. Supreme body it was a veche at which the Novgorod administration was elected, the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy were considered. The owners of the veche were 300 of the largest boyars of Novgorod. The top official was the mayor. He was the head of the government, in his hands was the administration and the court. In fact, boyars were elected as posadniks from among the large 4 Novgorod clans. Another important person in the Novgorod administration was the tysyatsky, who was in charge of the city militia and the commercial court. Veche also elected the head of the church - the bishop, who was in charge of the treasury and controlled the external relations of Novgorod. Veche invited the prince, who led the army during military campaigns. K. Marx called Novgorod "the great Russian republic of the Middle Ages." The Novgorod land managed to repel the onslaught of the German-Swedish aggression in the 40s. XIII century The famous battle on the Neva in 1240 with the Swedes and on ice went down in history Lake Peipsi in 1242 with the Livonian Order (Battle of the Ice), where the talent of a young 20-year-old commander, Prince Alexander of Novgorod, named Nevsky, was manifested. The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars slowed down the development of the Novgorod Republic. Although they were unable to capture the city, the heavy tribute and dependence on the Golden Horde greatly affected the further development of the republic.
In 1237-1241 the Russian lands were attacked by the Mongol Empire, a state that by the middle of the 13th century had conquered. vast territories from The Pacific before Central Europe... A significant part of the population was exterminated, many cities were destroyed and did not revive again. The Mongol-Tatar or Golden Horde yoke was established over Russia for almost 250 years. Russian principalities did not enter directly into the empire of the Golden Horde. Dependence was expressed in the payment of taxes and in the approval of the Russian princes by the Golden Horde Khan to the throne. As a result of the invasion, the development of feudalism slowed down. The consequence of the invasion was the weakening of the southern and western Russian lands. In the XIV - early. XV centuries. they were included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Russian statehood (under the sovereignty of the Horde) was preserved in North-Eastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) Russia and in the Novgorod land. As a result, a single ancient Russian nationality, characteristic of Kievan Rus, ceased to exist. In the territories of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia, the Russian (Great Russian) nationality begins to take shape, and on the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.
3. The culture of ancient Russia. By culture, we mean the totality of material and spiritual values created by humanity in the process of its social and labor practice. Speaking about material culture, we mean the development of tools of labor, technology, machinery, construction, etc. Spiritual culture includes science, education, ideology, literature, art.
The culture of Ancient Russia had high level development. Many monuments of ancient Russian culture have not survived to us, they died in the fire of fires, invasions, wars. Preserved mainly churches, cathedrals, icons, literature, objects of religious worship. The culture of Ancient Rus is based on the cultural heritage of the East Slavic tribes. It was influenced by nomadic peoples, the Varangians. Great influence on the culture of Ancient Russia had adoption of Christianity, as well as Byzantium, the countries of Western Europe.
Writing in Russia existed even before the adoption of Christianity (for example, the text of Oleg's treaty with the Greeks in 911 was written in Russian and Greek). By the time Christianity was adopted, an alphabet was formed. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the spread of literacy, the development of writing, and enlightenment.
The extensive development of writing is evidenced by the inscriptions on handicraft products: women signed the spinning wheel, potters - clay vessels, a shoemaker carved the names of his customers on stocks.
In 1951, birch bark letters were first discovered in Novgorod by archaeologists. Found more than 500 letters in Novgorod, Smolensk, Moscow, Polotsk, Pskov and other cities. Among the certificates there are business documents, letters, wills.
Under Yaroslav the Wise, a school was opened in Kiev, where more than 300 children studied. His daughter Anna was educated - one of the first literate women, who became the Queen of France.
From the XI - XII centuries. 80 books have survived to us, 7 of which have the exact date of writing. The oldest of them is the "Ostromir Gospel"; it was rewritten in 1056-1057. for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir.
At that time, they wrote on parchment, on specially made calfskin. They began to write the text with a big red letter - the headband. Books were decorated with drawings - miniatures. The stitched sheets of the book were bound, laid between two boards, which were covered with leather. The books were very expensive, they were carefully kept and passed on by inheritance.
In addition to the correspondence of religious texts, translations into Old Russian from Greek and Latin, original works by Russian authors were also created. Unlike European countries where Latin language was recognized by the state, in Russia they wrote in their native language.
During this period, a number of outstanding works were created. Among them: "The Tale of Bygone Years", "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", "Prayers of Daniel the Zatochnik", etc.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, the leading idea in literature was the idea of the unity of the Russian land. Pskov, Novgorod, Ipatiev, Laurentian and other chronicles are full of descriptions of princely internecine strife, the idea of a single strong grand-ducal power. A special place among the works of this period is occupied by "The Lay of Igor's Campaign", the pride of our literature.
Along with written literature, oral folk art was widespread, primarily bylinas that tell about the military and creative work of our people.
Architecture has reached a high level of development. More than 60 architectural monuments from the pre-Mongol period have survived. Until the end of the X century. there was no monumental stone architecture in Russia. The buildings were wooden.
One of the first stone structures was the twenty-five-domed church in honor of the Mother of God in Kiev (Church of the Tithes), erected by Greek craftsmen at the end of the 10th century. In the middle of the XI century. under Yaroslav the Wise, St. Sophia Cathedral with 13 domes and the Golden Gate in Kiev were built. Then Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk. On the territory of Russia, 15 stone temples of the XI - early. XII centuries. similar style.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, various architectural styles developed. Most of the temples are single-domed. Mosaic images give way to frescoes. Differences in architecture are mainly related to the building material used in a particular area. So limestone was widely used in Novgorod. The most ancient monuments of Novgorod are the cathedrals of the Yuryev and Antoniev monasteries, the Church of the Savior on the Neredina River.
Unlike Novgorod and Kiev, in the Vladimir-Suzdal land and Galicia-Volyn Rus, the main building material was white stone. Characteristic features of white-stone architecture: sophistication, harmony, aspiration upward, rich decorativeness. Of the architectural monuments of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, the most famous are the Golden Gate, the Assumption and Dmitrovsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the remains of Andrei's palace in Bogolyubov, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl River, the cathedrals of Pereyaslavl Zalessky, Suzdal, Yuriev-Polsky.
Inside the temples, the walls were richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics. A fresco is painting with water paints on wet plaster. In the Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, there are images of the sons and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise, everyday scenes depicting a hunt, buffoons, mummers, etc.
Mosaic - an image made of pieces of stone, marble, ceramics, smalt. Ancient Russia used smalt (a special glassy material). A huge figure of the Mother of God Oranta (Kievskaya Sophia) is made in the mosaic.
Icons were the adornment of churches. As well as frescoes and mosaics, the first icons in Russia were made by Greek masters. The most revered icon in Russia was the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, made by an unknown Greek artist at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. (stored in the Tretyakov Gallery). The icons of that time were part of the temples and were large in size. The names of the 11th century icon painters have come down to us: Olympius, Olisey, Georgy and others. With the formation of independent principalities-states in painting, local schools were formed that differed in the manner of execution.
Monumental sculpture of pagan times did not spread, as it was persecuted by the church. The first secular sculptural monuments appeared in Russia only in the 18th century.
Conclusions.
Thus, the 9th-13th centuries became the period of the formation of the Russian state, the largest in medieval Europe. Its creation took place in conditions of almost continuous wars with nomads who attacked from the East, with the German-Swedish feudal lords advancing from the West, with Byzantium, which settled on the southern borders. Located in the middle of the trade routes of North-Western Europe with Byzantium and Central Asia, the Russian state developed rapidly, became stronger, became powerful and influential. The period of appanage-princely fragmentation and the concurrent invasion of the Mongol-Tatar conquerors led to the disintegration of Kievan Rus. It was torn to pieces by the Golden Horde, the Polish-Lithuanian princes and went a long and painful path until it was reborn in the person of the Moscow principality, which became the center of the unification of Russian lands, and turned into the Russian Empire.
Page 3. Formation of the Old Russian state -
Commentary: It is better to carry out the work in steps, sequentially completing tasks for contour maps.
TASKS
1. Circle the border of the Old Russian state in 912.
2. Sign in the legend what is indicated by arrows on the map. 2. Sign in the legend what is indicated on the map with arrows.
The direction of movement of the Vikings (Normans) in the second half of the 9th - early 10th centuries.
3. Sign the names of the state-forming centers of Russia and cities under the influence of Rurik.
State-forming centers of Russia: Novgorod, Kiev
The cities of the Old Russian state under the influence of Rurik: Ladoga, Beloozero, Rostov, Murom, Izborsk, Polotsk
4. The legendary commander and prudent politician Prince Oleg made many campaigns. Mark the directions of these hikes on the map. Sign the name of the city, on the gates of which, according to legend, Prince Oleg nailed his shield.
Directions of the date of the campaigns of Prince Oleg are indicated by red arrows.
The city, on the gates of which, according to legend, Prince Oleg nailed his shield: Constantinople.
5. As you know, the famous trade route (the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks") connected the region Baltic Sea and Byzantium. Sign the names of the rivers along which it passed, and show on the map the route that those who wanted to get to Byzantium could follow. Sign the names of the seas that this path connected.
The names of the rivers: Volkhov, Lovat, Dnieper, Southern Bug.
Name of the seas: Baltic Sea, Black Sea.
The formation of the Old Russian state in IX- Xcenturies
Key dates and events:
862 - the calling of Rurik,
862-879 - the years of the reign of Rurik,
879-912 - years of Oleg's reign,
882 - the conquest of Ki by Novgorodeva, the formation of the Old Russian state
907, 911 - Oleg's campaigns against Byzantium, Russian-Byzantine treaty
912-945 - years of Igor's reign,
941, 944 - Igor's campaigns against Byzantium,
945 - the murder of Igor by the Drevlyans,
945-972 - years of Svyatoslav's reign,
945-964 - years regency of Olga,
965 - conquest of the Khazar Kaganate,
968 - victory over Volzh sky Bulgaria,
972 - 980 - years of Yaropolk's reign,
980-1015 - the years of the reign of St. Vladimir,
988 - adoption of Christianity,
Historical figures: Rurik; Oleg; Igor; Olha; Svyatoslav, Vladimir.
The formation of the ancient Russian state. There are several theories of the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
1. Slavic (anti-Norman). The role of cook is denied gov in education Old Russian state gifts and calling them to reign (M.V. Lomonosov).
2. Norman . The Old Russian state was created by the Normans (Varangians) with the voluntary consent of the Slavs (G. Bayer, A. Schletser, G. Miller).
3. Centrist (modern). Old Russian stategift arose as a result of the internal social development of the Slavs, but also with the participation of the Varangians (most modern historians). The Varangians, most likely, played the role of an accelerator of the formation process of the Old Russian state gifts. They were invited to Novgorod by local residents lyami as a mercenary squad, and then seized power and used it to spread their influence. The reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state are associated not with the personality of this or that person, but with the objective processes that took place in the economic and political evolution of the Eastern Slavs.
Old Russian princes and their activities.
Rurik.The founder of the Rurik dynasty. It is believed that in 862 several Slavic tribes invited the Scandinavian king (ruler) Rurik reign in their territory. In accordance with "The story temporaryyears»Rurik died in 879 and was succeeded by Oleg.
Oleg. V IX v. there are two largest centers of oddsmiming Russian statehood - Novgorod and Kiev between which there was a tensethe struggle for leadership in the unification of the East Slavic lands.The result of the campaign of Prince Oleg of Novgorod in 882 was aboutthe development of the Old Russian state with the capital in Kiev. Oleg I predicted the foreign policy position of Russia. V 907 g. He made a successful military campaign against Constantinople (Byzantium), which resulted in two peace treaties beneficial for Russia (907 and 911).
Igor.Organized military campaigns against Byzantium (941 - ended in failure, 944 - the conclusion of a mutually beneficial agreement). Expanded the boundaries of the ancient Russian state. Thus, the tribes of the Radimichi, Vyatichi, Ulichi, Krivichi and others were under Igor's control. between the prince and the tribes subordinate to him were built on the system of paying tribute(polyudye). Polyudye is an annual detour by the princes together with the boyars and squads of the territories under their control in order to collect taxes from local population... V 945 G ... the Drevlyans revolted against the too high amount of the required tribute. As a result of the unrest, Igor was killed.
Olga.After Igor's death, his wife Olga, to stabilize the situation, introduced a normalized tribute instead of a polyudye ( lessons) and established the places of collection of tribute ( churchyards). V 957 d. The first of the Russian princes to adopt Christianity under the name Elena.
Svyatoslav. (son of Igor and Olga) Initiator and leader of many military campaigns (defeat of the Khazar Kaganate, Volga Bulgaria, war with Byzantium, clashes with the Pechenegs).
VladimirISaint. 980 g. - the pagan reform of Prince Vladimir. Creation of a pantheon of pagan Slavic gods led by Perun (an unsuccessful attempt to adapt paganism to the goal of uniting Russia), 988 year - adoption of Christianity. Further expansion and strengthening of the state. Successful military campaigns against Poles, Pechenegs.
At the beginning of the IX century. on the territory of the East European Plain there were early state territorial entities Slavs. For example, in 839 there was a state of “Rus”, the ruler of which bore the title “Khakan”.
In the first half of the IX century. Slovenia, Krivichi, together with Chudya and Merey, formed a single political union, which was ruled first by themselves, and in the 60s. IX century the Scandinavian prince Rurik by origin. In 862 he became the prince of Novgorod. Other ethnic entities also had their own princes. The maturation of state relations took place almost throughout the entire territory of the Eastern Slavs.
In the last quarter of the IX century. The Scandinavian prince Oleg, who stood at the head of the state formation of the northern East Slavic and Finno-Ugric ethnic groups, undertook a campaign to the south, reached Kiev and overthrew the power of the Varangians Askold and Dir who ruled there. In 882 Kiev became the capital of the new state of Oleg, which united the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kiev, as well as the lands along the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. In the following time, Oleg subdued the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichs.
Under Prince Svyatoslav (by 970), the territory where Vyatichi, Ulici, and Tivertsy lived were included in the Old Russian state. In 965-966. Prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazar Kaganate. As a result of these victories, a number of East Slavic tribes were freed from the rule of Khazaria and subordinated to Kiev. Russia got the opportunity to trade with the East.
As a result, a significant in size Old Russian state was formed, which later included many East Slavic ethnic groups, some Finno-Ugric peoples, and some Baltic and Turkic tribes. The head of state was the prince who ruled in Kiev. Despite a certain centralization, the Old Russian state was essentially a federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev.
A special place was occupied by the second most important city - Novgorod, usually ruled by a son - the heir to the Kiev prince, who could independently wage wars with neighboring states and peoples and conclude diplomatic agreements. In Novgorod from the middle of the IX century. the traditions of republican (veche) government were formed.
The Drevlyans, as part of the Old Russian state, had their own prince. Other East Slavic ethnic groups often revolted against the Kiev princes and separated from Kiev.
The ancient Russian state was one of the most powerful states in Europe. During the reign of Svyatoslav's son Vladimir, the baptism of Rus took place (988). Russia adopted Orthodoxy and this event strengthened the authority of the princely power.
Under Vladimir, the western and southwestern lands were annexed to the Old Russian state. At the end of the X century. the state included Volhynians, whites. At the same time, the Principality of Polotsk was included by Vladimir into the Old Russian state. Vladimir managed to make protection from the Pechenegs a matter for all of Russia. He built defensive lines with a well-thought-out system of fortresses, ramparts and signal towers, recruited an army from the inhabitants of all parts of Russia. Vladimir was canonized, and the people retained a grateful memory of him - Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko and his squad became heroes of a whole cycle of epics, including those that arose in the north, far from the Polovtsian steppes.
In 1054, with the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the Old Russian state collapsed. Yaroslav divided the Old Russian state into several possessions between his sons. The elder Izyaslav received Kiev and Novgorod, Svyatoslav - the Chernigov principality, which included Tmutarakan, Murom and Ryazan, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl (South) and Rostov land in the Volga-Oka interfluve, Igor - Vladimir-Volynsky, Vyacheslav - Smolensk. The Polotsk princes continued to own their principality. In the subsequent time, these principalities have never been reunited all together, so 1054 is considered last year the existence of the Old Russian state.
It was replaced by the so-called "period of feudal fragmentation", which was expressed first in the ownership, and then in the military-political division of the ancient Russian territory, the existence of quite numerous independent principalities.
Under Prince Vladimir Monomakh, who ascended the Kiev throne in 1113, attempts to create a large Old Russian state were resumed. According to Monomakh's plan, she was to be ruled by him, his eldest son Mstislav and the latter's offspring. Prince in Kiev, Monomakh held Novgorod, Pereyaslavl (Yuzhny), Smolensk, Rostov and Vladimir Volynsky, where his sons ruled. It was a large territory, but it was inferior in size to the territory of the Old Russian state.
In the first quarter of the XII century. Polotsk and Chernigov princedoms retained their independence from Kiev, and in the west of the Old Russian lands - formed in the 80s. XI century Principality of Przemyshl and Terebovl. The death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125 and his eldest son Mstislav the Great in 1132 led to a long struggle between the Monomakhovichs and the Chernigov princes for the possession of the Kiev principality, as well as within the sons and grandsons of Vladimir Monomakh themselves for the redistribution of possessions.
As a result, this struggle led to the loss of Kiev by the Monomakhovichs and to the complete independence of such principalities as Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Suzdal (the ancient Rostov land), Vladimir-Volynsk; to the formation in 1136 of an independent Novgorod Republic; the renewal in 1139 of the independence of the Polotsk principality, annexed to the possessions of Mstislav the Great in 1132; the formation in 1141 from the Przemysl and Terebovl princedoms of a single Galician principality. At the same time, Murom and Ryazan were separated from the Chernigov principality in 1127.
Thus, 100 years after the collapse of the Old Russian state, by the middle of the XII century. on the ancient Russian territory there were already 10 independent political entities. The process of state fragmentation continued to develop along an ascending line.
There were objective reasons for this. The centers that were striving for independence ceased to pay tribute to the Kiev princes and send their squads at their disposal when these princes organized major military campaigns. Material and human resources remained at the full disposal of the princes gaining independence, and they directed them to expand and develop their own territories, build cities, and fortify borders. Both written sources and archaeological data testify to the beginning from the middle of the XII century. a sharp increase in urban construction. New cities appear not in the vicinity of the old centers, but where there were no cities at all before. This testifies to the general expansion of the borders of the ancient Russian principalities and the development of new territories by these principalities.
So, the Kiev principality expanded its territory to the south, reaching the r. Ros. He mastered lands in the west between the rivers Goryn and Teterev. The territory of the Pereyaslavl principality has grown in the eastern and southern directions, covering the basin of the river. Sula and reaching the river. Vorskla. The Chernigov princes expanded their territory, mainly in the northeastern direction, including the lands along the river. Lopasnya, the left tributary of the Oka. In the south, their possessions crossed the tributary of the Desna Seim and reached the r. Oster. The territory of the Galician principality grew at the expense of the lands located on the right bank of the upper reaches of the Dniester. The Polotsk princes increased their possessions to the northwest, seizing the lands of the Latgalians along the lower course of the Western Dvina. The Smolensk princes moved to the northeast, seeking to control the upper reaches of the Volga. Here they competed with the oncoming traffic of the Suzdal, later Vladimir, princes, who were striving to secure their path along the Volga from Zubtsov to Yaroslavl. Another direction of expansion of the territory of North-Eastern Russia was the east, where in the second half of the 60s - early 70s. XII century on the left bank of the Volga, Gorodets Radilov (modern Gorodets) was founded, and in 1221 at the confluence of the Oka and the Volga - Novgorod, which later received the name of Nizhny. In Podvina (the Northern Dvina basin), the Suzdal people encountered Novgorodians, who were developing this territory from the west, from the Ladoga and Onega lakes, as well as from the north. Novgorodians play the main role in the conquest and economic development of a vast territory east of Ladoga and Onega up to the river. Pechora.
A sharp increase in the number of cities in the middle of the XII century. occurred primarily due to the so-called "small towns", the area of which, identified archaeologically, ranged from 0.2 to about 2 hectares. The growth in the number of such cities surrounded by wooden walls is explained by the fact that the principalities, having achieved political independence, began to strengthen their borders. This is how such well-known cities as Moscow, Tver, Kostroma appeared, which initially did not play any significant economic or political role, but performed the functions of border fortresses. Nevertheless, relying on such fortresses, the population of various principalities was able to conduct internal colonization and economic development of territories in a safer environment.
For a long time, the positive results of political fragmentation outweighed the negative consequences of such fragmentation. Therefore, the fragmentation continued to grow.
By 1237, the beginning of the Batu invasion, the Novgorod Republic and many principalities existed on the territory of ancient Russia. In the east, it was the Ryazan principality, which included the Pronskoe principality as an inheritance; Muromskoe, which was bordered by the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. From the latter in 1212-1218. the principalities of Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslavl-Zalessky), Yuryevskoe, Rostovskoe, Yaroslavskoe and Uglichskoe stood out. To the west of them was the Smolensk principality, and further the principality of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Pinsk. To the south of the Smolensk principality lay the principality of Chernigov, which included several appanage principalities: Kozelsk, Kursk, Rylskoe, possibly Novgorod-Seversk and Putivl. To the south of Chernigov lay the principality of Pereyaslavl (South Pereyaslavl). The largest ancient Russian principality was Kievskoe, where there were also several destinies: the princedoms of Vyshgorodskoe, Kanevskoe and Torgskoe. The Western Vladimir-Volyn principality included such appanages as the principalities of Belz, Cherven and Lutsk. The Galicia principality, adjacent to the Vladimir-Volyn principality from the south, had a single specific center - Przemysl.
Thus, by the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, ancient Russia was divided into 18 large state formations, which included more than a dozen appanage principalities.
This political fragmentation, associated with the absence of a unified armed forces, significantly influenced the outcome of the struggle of the Russian people against the foreign invasion.
After the campaigns of the Tatar-Mongols against the Russian principalities at the end of 1237-beginning of 1241. and the recognition by the majority of Russian princes in 1242 of the supreme power of the Great Khan and the Khan of the Golden Horde Batu subordinate to him in the resettlement of the Old Russian people, the number and structure of the Old Russian principalities underwent great changes.
The lands from the Sula to the Desna, the left tributaries of the Dnieper, where the Pereyaslavl (Southern Pereyaslavl) principality, the steppe parts of the Kiev principality, the southern parts of the Chernigov principality, and the lands along the right tributaries of the middle course of the Oka were located, came under the direct control of the Tatar-Mongols. In the west, the Galician-Volyn princes lost their former control over the lands along the Siret, Prut and the lower reaches of the Dniester.
In the Volgook interfluve, due to the devastation of Batu and the subsequent Horde khans of the old centers of the ancient Rostov land of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir, the population, fleeing military threats, began to go to the outskirts of this land, which contributed to the formation in the post-Mongolian time of such principalities as Tverskoe, Belozerskoe, Moskovskoe, Kostromskoe and Gorodetskoe with the center in Gorodets Radilov on the Volga. By the 70s. XIII century in North-Eastern Russia, instead of 6 principalities of pre-Mongol time, there were as many as fourteen: in addition to the indicated 5 principalities, there were also Starodubskoe, Suzdal, Galich-Dmitrovskoe, Pereyaslavskoe (Pereslavl-Zalesky), Yurievskoe, Rostovskoe, Yaroslavskoe and Uglichskoe. The Grand Duchy of Vladimir remained the main one.
Western Russian principalities such as Polotsk, Vitebsk and Pinsk were captured by the Lithuanians. And in the 60s. XIV century. Lithuanian Grand Duke Olgerd annexed Kiev with its lands to the state. Even earlier, in the first half of the XIII century. were lost Russian possessions in the Baltic States, where formed at the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII centuries. German bishoprics, as well as founded at the beginning of the XIII century. The Order of the Swordsmen first took away the possession of the Polotsk princes in the land of the Latgalians, and then the possession of Novgorod the Great in the land of the Estonians.
In the 40s. XIV century. the Polish king took possession of the Galician principality. In the 50s. Lithuanian prince Olgerd subdued the Bryansk principality. Relative political independence, while being dependent on the Golden Horde, was retained only by a few small "Verkhov" principalities (former Chernigov estates in the upper reaches of the Oka), Ryazan and Pronsk principalities, Smolensk principality, principalities of North-Eastern Russia and Novgorod feudal republic. The largest of the listed state formations remained the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, with its center in Vladimir on the Klyazma. However, from the beginning of the XIV century. the Horde khans established their control over its territory. The tough struggle for the Khan throne between various groups of Chingizids and the Horde nobility, which began in 1359 in the Horde, led to a split of the Horde into the Eastern Horde (Sarai) and the Western Horde (Mamaeva), which immediately affected the position of the Russian lands, which for a number of years stopped paying tribute to the Tatars. The growing independence of the Russian princes was facilitated by the strengthening economic situation them and their population.
The increased material capabilities of the princes, especially those of Moscow, their skillful policy, and the weakening of the Horde's power led in the second half of the 14th century to fundamental changes in the structure of the principalities of North-Eastern Russia.
At the beginning of the XIV century. the rise of the Moscow principality begins. The first Moscow prince Daniel, son of Alexander Nevsky, captured Kolomna in 1300, and in 1302 occupied the escheat Pereyaslavl principality. The eldest son Ivan who inherited it, nicknamed “Kalita”, annexed Mozhaisk in 1303. Under his son Simeon the Gord, the position of the Moscow princes was significantly strengthened.
In the early 60s. XIV century. Moscow prince Dmitry, the future "Donskoy", annexed the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to his possessions, together with the lands of the former principalities of Kostroma, Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslavl-Zalessky), Yuryevsky and part of the Rostov princedoms, part of the territories of Torzhok, Volok Lamsky and Vologda. Dmitry Donskoy also annexed to Moscow, first the Dmitrov, and then the Galich part of the once united Galich-Dmitrov principality, the Uglich and Belozersk principality, Kaluga and Medyn, as well as some Tatar and, probably, Mordovian lands east of the Ryazan principality. In 1392, the heir of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily I, managed to subjugate the Nizhny Novgorod principality with Suzdal, which belonged to it, and a little later annexed the Murom and Tarusa principalities to Moscow. As a result, by the end of the XIV century. the territory of the Moscow principality increased several times, it became the largest political entity in the North-East of Russia. The principalities of Tverskoe, Starodubskoe, Rostov, Yaroslavl remained independent and separated from the latter in the 60s - 70s. XIV century. Molozhskoe. Since the time of Dmitry Donskoy, a special order of grand-ducal inheritance was established: the territory of the former great reign of Vladimir was declared indivisible, it was to be transferred only to the senior heir, who also received other lands of the vast Moscow principality to this territory. Thus, the foundations of the Russian monarchy were laid - Moscow in origin and descending in succession: from father to eldest son.
Territory mapping
The famous Russian historian and geographer V. N. Tatishchev, in his “Proposal on the composition of Russian history and geography,” sent to the Academy of Sciences, clearly defined the relationship between these two sciences in the following words: “History is all, although actions and times from words have it is clear to us; but where, in what position or distance, what happened, what natural obstacles to the ability of those actions were, as well as where the people used to live and now lives, how the ancient cities are now called and where they have been transferred, this geography and the land maps composed to us explain: and so is the history or narratives and chronicles without land descriptions (geography) cannot give us complete pleasure in knowledge ”.
This statement clearly characterizes the important role geographic maps- the main language of geography. This language, as a means of expressing people's ideas about the surrounding geographic environment and transmitting spatial information, is more ancient than any form of writing. There are known cartographic rock cartographic images dating back to the Bronze Age. The simplest cartographic drawings were widely used by the peoples of America, Northeast Asia and Oceania, who at the time of their discovery by Europeans were at the level of the primitive communal system and did not know the written language. With all the variety of forms of ancient cartographic images, depending on the cultural and historical characteristics of the ethnic groups within which they developed, these images had to solve at least four main tasks:
- and display of natural and artificial routes of communication.
- Localization and representation of the limits of private territorial possessions, and later - the boundaries of tribal associations and ancient state formations.
- Cartographic display of fortifications and urbanized territories (settlements of various types).
- Study and cartographic representation (sometimes - a cartographic declaration) of the territories of states as a whole.
Since ancient times, general (conceptual) cartography has also developed, which constitutes an integral part of cosmography and knowledge of the world and is a reflection of ideas about the oecumene and the place in it of the corresponding nationality or state.
Under the conditions of the ancient Russian state, the indicated four directions of practical cartography developed from their very inception relatively independently. In the process of formation, each of them in its own way contributed to the formation of characteristic techniques and skills that formed the national cartographic tradition of creating original geographical drawings.
For the development of the state, spread over vast forest areas, dotted with numerous rivers, knowledge about its territory was vital. In a remarkable monument of Old Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years" (about 1113) - we find direct evidence of the existence of such geographic knowledge from the author, who, judging by the text of the chronicle, had fairly clear ideas about the location of the ancient Russian lands. Extensive geographic information about neighboring principalities and foreign countries gathered during this period in Russia in the form of route descriptions and road builders in narratives about the walking of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. These texts contain information about the distances along the routes, both in days of travel and in measures of length - versts. It should be noted that of all the Old Russian measures, the measures of length were the most definite. The main one, the fathom, originally meant gripping with your hands, what you can reach, reach out. Road builders have been created in our country since ancient times: the hegumen Daniel's itinerary for Palestine, compiled around 1107, has been preserved.
The presence of road builders and extensive information about neighboring territories and countries was one of the evidence of the initial high mobility of our ancestors during the formation of the Russian nation in the process of mixing the indigenous Finno-Ugric tribes of hunters and fishermen with newcomer Slavic farmers, complicated during the formation of the state by the significant inclusion of representatives of Scandinavia warlike travelers - the Varangians. In the days of Kievan Rus, agriculture becomes the prevailing type economic activity... The protection of the interests of the emerging feudal land tenure required a clear definition and designation of the boundaries of private land plots on the ground. Already in the "Charter of Volodimer Vsevolodich" (Monomakh) (XII century), it is said about the boundaries limiting land or other private ownership (boarding lands, household farmsteads, etc.), and boundary signs (signs) for fixing them on the ground, as well as punishments for their destruction: “If you change the board, then 12 hryvnia. As soon as the boundary between the onboard side, or the role-playing one to ruin, or the yard side to block the boundary, then twelve hryvnias for sale ”.
From the above excerpt it can be seen that cultivated fields and other farmland in the XII century. had quite definite borders, fenced off by a tyn or marked by noticeable local objects (oak oak, separate stones, etc.). Thus, the measurement, assessment, division and graphic display of land areas by this period becomes of paramount importance. Determination of their areas stimulated the development of linear measurements using elementary instruments - measuring ropes (ropes) - and drawings-drawings with an approximate display of the relative position of landscape elements and cultivated lands. It is to this direction that the earliest monuments of Russian cartography belong, for example, Stepan's Stone, which, according to archaeologists, served in the 12th century. a boundary mark on the border of land holdings in the Tver land. A geometrical figure is engraved on the stone, which, possibly, is a plan of a surveyed field that belonged to Stepan, who left his name on the plan. Unfortunately, it will hardly ever be possible to prove the validity of such an interpretation of this image with irrefutable convincingness, but if it is correct, then the engraving on Stepan's Stone is the oldest Russian cartographic image known to science.
Another direction of ancient Russian cartography arose from the need to describe and depict in terms of fortresses, cities and special defense lines (notch lines), which consisted of artificial forest heaps, earthen ramparts and fortifications built in South Russia in the XIII-XVI centuries. The construction of such buildings required even more detailed and accurate measurements on the ground than when determining the boundaries of land holdings. The plans of structures that were drawn up at the same time often consisted of a combination of a plan and frontal image of the walls of buildings and defensive structures, as well as landscape elements. This direction of cartography was closely connected with the development of construction drawings, and, perhaps, that is why Greek and Italian architects, artists and builders, who were then actively involved in the main Russian cities, could play a certain role in its formation. It is likely that there is a genetic link between Russian cartographic traditions and the cartography of Ancient Rome and Byzantium.
Already at G. Mainitskiy in 1100, the name Russia can be found north of the mouth of the Danube River. On the Ebstorf map of the world in 1235, 14 geographical names referring to the territory of Russia are applied.
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