Greece at the end of III-II millennium BC

ANCIENT WORLD HISTORY:
East, Greece, Rome /
I.A. Ladynin and others.
M .: Eksmo, 2004

Chapter

Chapter X.

Greece at the end of III-II millennium BC e.

The history of Ancient Greece as part of the history of the Ancient world studies the emergence, flourishing and crisis of slave societies that formed on the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, in the Aegean Sea region, in southern Italy, on the island of Sicily and in the Black Sea region.

The history of this civilization is divided into three stages. The first is the emergence, flourishing and fall of early class societies and the first state formations of Greece in the 2nd millennium BC. e. (history of Crete and Achaean Greece). The second stage, the actual polis stage of development, is already antique greece, includes the time that came after the death of the Mycenaean statehood in the XII-XI centuries. BC e. up to the last third of the 4th century. BC e. The culmination of this stage in the development of ancient Greek society was the birth, flourishing and crisis of a socio-economic, political and state structure unique in world history - the ancient Greek polis. It was he who became the structure-forming element of the Hellenic ancient civilization.

After the conquest by the Greeks and Macedonians in the last third of the IV century. BC e. The Persian state of the Achaemenids begins the third, final stage of ancient Greek history. This is almost three centuries, during which huge Hellenistic states were created with an extensive economy and a syncretic culture that included both Western and Eastern elements. This stage ends at the end of the 1st century. BC e., when the Hellenistic states, experiencing aggressive pressure from the west from Rome, and from the east - from the Parthian state, were conquered by them.

The history of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization is characterized by the emergence and development of early class state formations, which in their nature and structure are very reminiscent of the ancient Eastern ones. This process for the local autochthonous population (Pelasgians) was accelerated by the movement of the Achaean Greeks from the north, from the Danube territories, to the territory of the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. They managed to create their own statehood and original culture.

However, at the end of the II millennium BC. e. radical socio-economic, political, cultural and ethnic changes are taking place. Since the XII century. BC e. a new tribal group moved to the territory of Balkan Greece - the Dorian Greeks, who became the gravediggers of the Mycenaean civilization, which had previously subjugated the Cretan state formations.

A new cycle of development of statehood in Ancient Greece begins around the 11th century. BC, opening the already polis stage in the development of ancient Greece. It includes three periods:

1. Homeric, or prepolis ("dark ages") - XI-IX centuries. BC e. It is characterized by the dominance of tribal relations in the territory of Balkan Greece.

2. Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC) - the formation of polis structures, the period of the Great Greek colonization and early Greek tyranny.

3. Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC) - the heyday of the ancient Greek city-states, their economy, the period of the highest cultural achievements of the ancient Greeks.

After the eastern campaign of Alexander the Great and the creation of a system of Hellenistic states, a new stage in ancient Greek history begins - the era of Hellenism (the last third of the 4th century BC - 30 BC). Last date marks the formal completion of the history of Ancient Greece. In 30 BC. e. the last of the Hellenistic states, Ptolemaic Egypt, loses its independence and becomes the prey of Rome. Since then, the history of the regions of Ancient Greece and the former Hellenistic states has been studied already within the framework of the history of Ancient Rome.

The life of the ancient Greeks was associated with the sea. Many islands of the Aegean archipelago connected the eastern coast of the Balkan Peninsula, indented by many bays and convenient harbors with the eastern and southern shores. Mediterranean Sea... Therefore, they are already in the II millennium BC. e. got acquainted with the eastern countries. The Greeks of the Balkan Peninsula, who lived on the coast of the Aegean Sea, could, without losing sight of the island lands, easily cross the sea to the territory of Asia Minor. All this contributed to the early development of navigation, exchange, trade, and colonization among them. This could not but leave a certain imprint on the psychological characteristics of the character of the ancient Greeks, who were characterized by courage, determination, often bordering on adventurism, cheerful optimism and faith in their own physical and spiritual abilities.

Balkan Greece itself is a country of low mountains. There are practically no fertile valleys, with few exceptions. The settlements of the ancient Greeks were located in small areas surrounded by mountains and, as a rule, did not have an outlet to the sea. The very nature and relief of the Balkan Peninsula caused the isolation of the places of residence of small Greek communities scattered throughout its territory, and the lack of contacts between them.

Mainland Greece is divided into three parts - North, Middle and South (Peloponnese). Part of Northern Greece is occupied by the Thessalian Plain, practically the only vast area in these places, convenient for arable farming. Through the mountain Thermopylae pass it was possible to get to Central Greece, and the Corinthian (Isthmian) isthmus connected it with the Peloponnese peninsula - Southern Greece. The Peloponnese is also mountainous, but there are two relatively fertile regions, Messinia and Laconica, separated by a mountain range.

Given the small area of fertile land and the mountainous overall relief of the Balkan Peninsula, the Greeks have long focused their efforts in agriculture on the cultivation of the so-called. Mediterranean triad (barley, grapes and olives). The demand for wheat was satisfied mainly by imported grain, in the delivery of which the Greek colonies played a leading role. Cattle breeding reached a significant development among the ancient Greeks. Fish was an important addition to their diet.

The early development of Greek crafts was facilitated by the presence of minerals in mainland Greece and on the islands of the Aegean archipelago. Place of Birth iron ore lay in a number of regions of Greece, primarily in Laconia. Copper was mined on the islands of Euboea and Cyprus; silver deposits were located in the south of Attica (Lavrion mines). The Thracian coast and Macedonia were famous for their gold mines; marble was mined in Attica and on the island of Paros. Attica and Corinth produced good pottery clay. Established trade relations with other lands were able to replenish the range of minerals.

Material from Uncyclopedia

Ancient (or antique) Greece - Greek civilization, statehood and culture of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. e. (from the emergence of the first Greek city-states to the Roman conquest in the 2nd century BC). The ancient Greeks inhabited the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and western part peninsula Asia Minor. Having founded their colonial cities here, they penetrated the Black Sea coast, the island of Sicily and southern Italy ( southern part Italy and Sicily became known as "Greater Greece"). After the conquest of the huge Persian state by the Greco-Macedonian troops (see Power of Alexander the Great), the regions of the whole of Western Asia entered the ancient Greek state. However, Ancient Greece in the narrow sense is considered the territory of the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Aegean Basin.

Ancient Greece in the XII-VI centuries BC.

Ancient Greece in the 5th – 4th centuries BC.

"Parisian". A fresco from the Palace of Knossos. OK. 1500 BC e. Heraklion (Crete).

Temple of Hera in Paestum. 2nd quarter of the 5th century BC e.

Shooting Hercules. A statue of the eastern pediment of the temple of Athena Afraya on the island of Aegina. OK. 500 BC e.

Pelika with the image of a swallow.

Sculptor Alexander. Venus de Milo. OK. 120 BC e.

Sculptor Polycletus. Dorifor (spear-bearer). OK. 440 BC e.

The great Greek playwright Sophocles.

The great Greek tragedian Euripides.

Kouros from Attica (archaic statue of an athlete or god) Early 6th century BC e.

Dipylon amphora. Ceramics. Mid-8th century BC e. Athens.

Architects Iktin and Kallikrat. Parthenon. 447-438 BC e. Acropolis of Athens.

Peloponnesian War 431–404 BC.

Balkan, or mainland, Greece was divided into Northern Greece (the region of Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia), Central Greece (the region of Attica with the city of Athens, Boeotia with the city of Thebes, etc.), Southern Greece, or Peloponnese (regions of Argolis, Achaia, Laconica with the center of Sparta, Messinia, Corinth, Elis with the city of Olympia, where the Olympic Games were held). In the western part of Asia Minor, Aeolis and Ionia with the city of Miletus played an important role. Most large islands Aegean - Crete, Rhodes, Samos, Lesvos.

In ancient times, all these areas were inhabited by local tribes of non-Greeks. The ancient Greeks (they were called the Achaeans) first came here at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. e. from the Danube basin. At the end of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. new wave Greek tribes - Dorians came from modern Epirus. From the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the Greek people were divided into four large tribal groups: Achaeans, Dorians, Ionians and Aeolians. The Achaean tribes lived in the central and northwestern parts of the Peloponnese (the regions of Arcadia and Achaia), the Dorians inhabited the rest of the Peloponnese, southern islands The Aegean Sea and the southwestern part of Asia Minor. The Ionians occupied part of Central Greece (Attica), the island of Euboea, the islands of the middle part of the Aegean Sea and the region of Ionia in Asia Minor. The Aeolians inhabited the region of Thessaly, the islands of the northern part of the Aegean Sea, and the region of Aeolus in Asia Minor. All these tribal groups spoke different dialects of the Greek language (Ionian, Dorian, Aeolian), which differed from each other, although all Greeks freely understood each other. A single common Greek language arose quite late, in the III-II centuries. BC e.

Until the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in ancient Greece, primitive tribal relations prevailed. First of all, the primitive system began to decompose on the island of Crete. Here at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. there were several small states in small mountain valleys. One of the strongest is the state in the central part of northern Crete. The city of Knossos became the capital of the united Cretan state. The Cretan kings, who had a large fleet, captured many of the islands in the southern part of the Aegean Sea, the coastal regions of the eastern Peloponnese and the southwestern part of Asia Minor. The legendary king Minos, who ruled approximately in the XVI-XV centuries. BC e., is considered the first legislator in Crete, the creator of a powerful sea power.

In the middle of the 15th century. BC e. on the island of Santorini, located 100 km north of Crete, there was a powerful volcanic eruption that destroyed Knossos to the base and turned Crete into ruins. The plight of Crete was taken advantage of by the Achaeans, who captured it. In the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. the most important role was played by the Peloponnese with the major cities of Mycenae and Pylos. Scientists have deciphered the complex writing used by the Achaeans in the 15th – 13th centuries. BC e.

From the texts read, it became known their economy, social groups and classes, management. The Achaean kingdoms were early slave-owning, monarchical states with large vestiges of tribal relations. In the XIII century. BC e. most of the Achaean states united under the rule of King Agamemnon of Mycenae and attacked the Asia Minor states led by Troy. The Trojan War, described in Homer's poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, lasted, according to legend, 10 years and ended with the victory of the Greeks. However, it undermined the strength of the Greeks and the Achaean kingdoms began to weaken, which was used by the Dorians, which were joined by the Greek and non-Greek tribes. After the conquest of the Peloponnese by the Dorians, the primitive clan system was re-established in Greece. In the XI-IX centuries. BC e. tribal relations began to disintegrate, social and property differentiation arose again, and government bodies began to form. In the IX-VIII centuries. BC e. the first city-states, or policies, arose on the territory of Greece. Polis was an association of private landowners, as well as citizens engaged in various trades and crafts. As full members, they had the right to property. The majority of the population lived in such a city, there were state institutions, temples, craft workshops. All matters were decided at a general meeting of citizens of the policy (this did not include slaves, women and representatives of the free population, who were obliged to pay taxes and taxes and who were not citizens of the policy). Sparta, Athens, Corinth, Megara, Argos, Miletus, Smyrna and others were distinguished by their importance.

In the VIII-IV centuries. BC e. Greeks began to settle (the so-called great colonization) from the Aegean region towards Sicily to the west and towards the Black Sea coast to the northeast. During the process of colonization, they founded several hundred different cities. The largest among them are Syracuse, Acragant, Gela, Messana, Sybaris, Tarentum, Kumas in Sicily and southern Italy; in the Black Sea region - Byzantium (in the Bosphorus), Heraclea and Sinop on the south coast, Istria and Apollonia on the west, Olbia, Theodosia and Panticapaeum on the north, Dioscuriada and Phasis on east coast The Black Sea. The process of settling the Greeks, the establishment of colonies, and the establishment of relations between colonies and metropolises (policies that created the colony) played a huge role in the development of city-states, Greek society and culture (see Colonialism).

Ancient Greece reached its highest development in the classical period of its history - in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. Its social and cultural development was greatly influenced by the Greco-Persian wars. Their victorious end caused a great moral upsurge in Greece.

Greece of this period is a country with a thriving agriculture and crafts based on the labor of slaves. Commodity production is developing; Greeks conduct active trade with all the countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. Especially lively shopping centers were Corinth, Miletus, Athens.

Ancient Greece is the birthplace of such an advanced form of state as a democratic republic, or democracy. However, it was a democracy in which slaves, free, not members of this policy, and women did not have political rights. It received its fullest development in Athens. Here, free citizens, regardless of their property status, decided important state affairs at meetings: they issued laws, elected officials, heard their reports, made peace and declared war, etc. In Athens, there was a special court - helium, it consisted of 6 thousand people. judges elected from ordinary citizens. Current affairs were decided by a council of 500 people (bule). Various officials (strategists, treasurers, city officials) were re-elected annually and were not allowed, with rare exceptions, to occupy the same position twice.

It was during the classical period that a great culture was created in Ancient Greece, which influenced the development of the entire world culture. The tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the witty comedies of Aristophanes, the philosophical treatises of Plato and Aristotle, wonderful architectural ensembles Athenian Acropolis, the temples of Zeus at Olympia, Apollo at Delphi, Artemis at Ephesus still fascinate people. Masterpieces ancient greek sculpture inspired more than one generation of masters of all times and peoples (see Antiquity, Mythology, Renaissance (Renaissance), Renaissance).

In the middle of the 5th century. BC e. most of the Greek city-states united in two large alliances: the Peloponnesian, led by Sparta, and the Athenian maritime union, led by Athens. Sharp contradictions between them led to the Peloponnesian War, which lasted 27 years intermittently. Sparta won the victory, but in the 4th century. BC e. it was opposed by Corinth, Thebes and other Greek city-states. In the fight against them, Sparta was forced to dissolve the Peloponnesian Union. All other associations of Greek city-states (Boeotian Union, 2nd Athens Maritime Union) also disintegrated (see map).

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in Greece, the crisis of the policies, caused by continuous internecine wars and the sharpest internal struggle between the aristocracy and the people, began. As a result, the king of Macedonia Philip II gradually conquered one polis after another, and by 338 BC. e. seized power over virtually all of Greece. His son Alexander, nicknamed the Great, became the founder of a huge empire, which included the territory of Ancient Greece.

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. e. his vast empire disintegrated into a number of large states, headed by Alexander's generals. The Ptolemaic dynasty was established in Egypt, the Seleucids in Mesopotamia and Syria, the Attalids in Pergamum, and the Antigonids in Macedonia. A new stage in the history of Ancient Greece began - the stage of Hellenism, which lasted for about 300 years, from the end of the 4th century. BC e. until the end of the 1st century BC e. (see Hellenism). The Hellenistic states were large, but politically weak formations and had already become from the end of the 3rd century. BC e. decay. They were weakened by constant wars and made easy prey for their enemies. Founded in the middle of the III century. BC e. in the east, the state of Parthia conquered most of the Seleucid possessions. And in the west, Rome took advantage of the weakening of the Hellenistic countries, seizing first the Macedonian kingdom, then Pergamum. In the 1st century. BC e. he annexed the remnants of the Seleucid kingdom located in Syria and Hellenistic Egypt. The incorporation of the Hellenistic countries into Parthia in the east and Rome in the west put an end to the independence of Ancient Greece.

Not only professional historians and students of history faculties are fascinated by ancient Greece. It is a subject of admiration and interest for researchers from related fields of science, tourists and travelers who want to know everything about Ancient Greece. This applies to both historical events and everyday life, culture, philosophy, scientific knowledge, philosophy, mythology.

Ancient Greece is usually understood as the period in world history, which began in 3 thousand BC and lasted until the middle of the 1st century AD.

Periodization

Depending on what criteria scientists lay in the division of ancient Greek history, such can be periodization. There are two most common and accepted classifications in science. The first of them involves dividing into three large periods:

Preclassical, which began in the 3rd century. BC. and lasted until the 4th century. BC.;
Classic, covering 5-4 centuries. BC.;
Hellenistic, dating from the second half of the 4th century. - the middle of the 1st century. AD

Archaeologists insist that the pre-classical period should be additionally divided into three stages - Crete-Mycenaean, Homeric and archaic. At the turn of the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. the first civilization arose on the island of Crete, which was separated from the rest of the periods, thanks to various artifacts. The culture of the Crete-Mycenaean period is not as rich as in other eras of Ancient Greece, but it suggests that this civilization requires special attention of researchers.

The Homeric period has been little studied by historians; basic information about it has been preserved in the works of Homer. Chronologically covered the period from the 11th to the 9th centuries. BC.

It was followed by an archaic stage, in which the foundations of the statehood of the Greeks, mentality, culture, mythology began to take shape. The period began in the 8th century. BC. and ended at the border of the 5-4 centuries. BC.

Settlement of Hellas

People began to appear on the southern outskirts of the Balkan Peninsula during the Middle Paleolithic. Traces of primitive man have been found from Macedonia to Elis. In the Neolithic, people were already engaged in agriculture, raised livestock, began to build houses, a clan system was formed, which in 3-2 thousand BC. grew into an early class society.

During the Aegean period, the settlement of mainland and insular Greece took place. In particular, the Minoan culture developed in Crete, the Helladic culture on the mainland, and the Cycladic culture on the islands.

In the Bronze Age, civilization actively developed on the Greek islands. For this period, the following features and achievements were characteristic:

Ore mining began, including copper;
People began to actively use silver and lead;
Weapons, adornments, tools, and cult items were made of metal;
Ceramics and pottery were created;
Construction and crafts related to it developed. This made it possible to develop shipping. The construction of ships contributed to the gradual development of the islands neighboring Greece. As a result, the ancient Greeks established dominance over the coast of the entire Aegean Sea;
Have arisen big cities, which were the centers of certain tribes. The settlements were inhabited on hills, which indicates the beginning of the differentiation of society. There were rulers who sought to rise above other people. This provoked the first tribal wars in ancient Greece.

In the Bronze Age, Crete was the center of social and economic development, on which several states were formed. These include Festus, Mallia, Knossos. By their nature, these were early slave states, which had their own written language (hieroglyphic). At the very end of the Bronze Age, a new palace began in Crete, during which the creation of new palaces and the renovation of old ones took place. The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization was one of the most developed in Ancient Greece, under which relations with the outside world, sea domination, and cities were strengthened. In 1470 BC. there was an earthquake on the island of Fera, which reached Crete. Cities, palaces, and the fleet were instantly destroyed. The entire population of the island also perished, after which its territory began to fall into desolation. A hundred years later, the Palace of Knossos was restored, but this state did not achieve its former power.

Other centers of slavery arose on the mainland, which became separate city-states. It was Pylos, Tiryns and Mycenae who created the Achaean tribes. They built not only warships, but also large merchant ships, which made it possible to establish dominance over the existing trade routes of that time. The products of the Achaeans were sold to such countries of the East as Phenicia, Syria, Egypt. There are products of the ancient Greeks both in Asia Minor and in Italy. The Achaeans invented their own writing, which, unlike Cretan, was not hieroglyphic, but syllabic.

Features of the Homeric period

The Achaean civilization fell under the onslaught of the new Dorian tribes, who conquered the states in the middle and southern regions. Athens survived, where the Achaeans from the Peloponnese settled. I managed to save here high culture and develop further, and the rest of Greece in development was thrown back.

This is due to the fact that the Dorian tribes were in the conditions of the formation of the tribal system. Therefore, production, cities and political system began to change rapidly. Again, tribal relations came to the fore, which is why tools and weapons made of iron began to spread in ancient Greek society. Products made of metal and iron caused the formation of a special class of society - artisans, due to which at the end of the 9th century. BC. the craft was finally separated from agriculture and cattle breeding. So the market began to form, individual cities began to specialize in the production of only one type of iron products.

Independent communities headed by the Basilees began to take shape. Their power was supported by the clan nobility, which strengthened its influence through land holdings. The population living in such territories fell into slavery. People became dependent on the rich in different ways:

In Sparta, the dependent categories of the population included the periecs, which form the basis of the indigenous population of the state; as well as helots - farmers from Messinia. The Perieki had little self-government, continuing to engage in trade and various crafts. The helots were state property, they were attached to the plots of land of the Spartiats - representatives of the local nobility;
In Thessaly, the conquered population was called the penetes;
In Crete, they were clarotes.

Slavery in the Homeric period also existed in Athens, but people who did not pay their debts became slaves.

Greece in the archaic period

The increase in the number of cities and the complication of the social system caused the active development of trade. Residents of settlements demanded constant raw materials for work and food. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the cities became a haven for the peasants, whose land was taken away. The number of representatives of the nobility, which constantly needed slaves, also increased. They were used for the construction of palaces, for the cultivation of fields, for household work.

All this created the preconditions for the beginning of a new stage in the history of Ancient Greece - the colonial one. The impetus for the beginning of the creation of the city-colonies was the exacerbation of the social struggle within the Greek society. During the 8-6 centuries. BC colonies were withdrawn on the islands of Sicily and Euboea, the coast of the Gulf of Tarentum, the Black Sea, along the Aegean coast.

The presence of a large number of colonies led the Greek trade to new level development - international. The consequences of the creation of colonies include:

Growing demand for Greek goods;
Slaves constantly entered the metropolis;
Nobles received wealth and luxury items;
Coins borrowed from other peoples began to be used in trade;
The position of many landowners and clan nobility strengthened;
The individual cities of Greece became common religious centers.

The archaic period was characterized by a constant struggle between the demos and the aristocracy. The population of the cities tried to get rid of slavery, and this was done in a number of cities in Hellas.

Resistance was provided by the clan nobility, which they managed to subdue through the establishment of a tyranny regime.

During the 8-6 centuries. BC. a special form of the political, social and economic structure of the Greek city developed. It was a policy - a free settlement in which only free citizens lived. If people belonged to the polis, then this ensured them rights, including to slaves and to land.

Policies were divided into two groups:

Oligarchic (Sparta and Crete);
Democratic (Athens).

In the city-states, slavery and elements of the tribal system simultaneously existed. In the south of mainland Greece, agricultural communities continued to develop, which belonged to separate tribes.

Hellas in the classical period of development

Greece reached its peak of development in the 5-4 centuries. BC. Historians believe that this was the heyday of the economy, culture, politics, trade, sciences and arts. Trade and craft policies continued to use slaves - in craft workshops, in mines, in the fields, on the farm.

Small peasant farms and handicrafts became widespread.

During the classical period, the center of political life was Athens, which was famous for its democratic traditions. This allowed them to win a series of Greco-Persian wars, create the Delian alliance to fight against the Persians.

In Greece, there was never any unity between the poleis, and the struggle for domination intensified precisely in the classical period. The peak of the confrontation was the Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens, which ended in the loss of the last policy. Defeat and losses suffered Greek cities who supported Athens. But the war sparked the rise of Sparta and its supporters.

But this was not the last war in Hellas of that period. Another flared up in 395-387. BC, and received the name Corinthian. It ended with the defeat of Sparta, and the fall of part of the Greek city-states under the rule of Persia.

In the middle of the 4th century. BC. in the northern Greek regions, a new political force was formed, led by the city-state of Macedonia. Its king Philip II gradually captured the coast of Thrace, Thessaly, Hakidika and Phocis. The influence of Macedonia was so strong that parties of a pro-Macedonian orientation appeared in other policies.

In 338-337 BC Philip II convened the Corinthian Congress, which officially formalized the rule of Macedonia over insular and mainland Greece. He also created a union of policies, in which an oligarchic regime of government was proclaimed. Order among the population and in the government was maintained by the efforts of the Macedonian army.

The decline of ancient Greece

At the end of the 4th century. BC Hellas entered new period development, which in historiography is called Hellenistic. It was associated with the name of Alexander the Great, son of Philip II. His conquests qualitatively changed all spheres of life in Greece, formed many other states, and enriched Greek culture. Alexander the Great managed to create huge empire, which ceased to exist immediately after his death in 323 BC.

The Hellenistic period in Greece was characterized by the following events:

Creation of permanent alliances of cities, policies. Such formations were of a military nature, and were aimed at challenging the rule of Macedonia, Sparta or Athens in Greece;
Polis were headed by oligarchs or tsars who constantly fought among themselves;
Macedonia won the fight against Athens, which ended the famous Athenian democracy;
Macedonia lost power over the Balkans, since the Achaean and Aetolian military alliances constantly fought against it;
The death of Alexander the Great unleashed a struggle between his successors, as a result of which cities were destroyed, people died, the sale of people into slavery intensified, and new colonies were created. Pirates also began to attack Greece, especially the island and coastal policies suffered from this;
In the polises, the social struggle intensified, which depended on what political force intervened in the internal affairs of Greece. They were both Romans and Persians.

In 196 BC. the Isthmian Games took place, at which the commander Flamininus announced that the Greeks had freedom. This strengthened the popularity of Rome in Greece, which in fact became the property of the republic. In 27 BC. Hellas became one of the Roman provinces called Achaia. And so it went on for several centuries, until in the 4th century. AD raids by barbarians did not destroy the Roman Empire, dividing it into Western and Eastern. On the basis of the latter, a new political force began to form on the Balkan Peninsula - the Byzantine Empire.

Religion and mythology of ancient Greece

The inhabitants of Hellas had their own distinctive religion, which linked culture, mythology and art into a single whole. The Greeks believed that Zeus, sitting on Mount Olympus, is the main god. Together with him, eleven other gods and goddesses lived there. The Greek religion, like mythology, is interesting in that the Greeks represented their gods as people, endowing them with human traits of character and behavior. The gods had the same feelings as people, vices and desires that were present in the ancient world.

Mythology was formed over several centuries, and reflected all the problems that the Greeks faced in everyday life. Besides the gods, Greek mythology is rich in characters such as mortal heroes such as Achilles and Hercules, mythical creatures. These were satyrs, ora, nymphs, forest and river monsters, dragons, muses, dragons and echidnas.

Arts and Science

Huge contribution of residents Ancient Hellas made in the development of theater, painting, sculpture. Greek art is present in almost every corner of the globe. First of all, these are temples and architectural styles. The Greeks erected temples in honor of the gods, so that Zeus and his supporters had a place to live. But, unlike the Romans, or else ancient civilizations Egypt, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, the Greeks built small temples (relatively, judging by their size), placing them in the acropolis of the city. It was the most secure part settlement... To make the temple visible from afar, it was erected on a mountain or hill. They tried to use two basic materials for construction - limestone and white marble. Each temple, like any Greek structure, necessarily had columns, located in one or two rows. During the classical period, the art of building temples reached its peak. In the next era - the Hellenistic - stadiums, sports grounds, promenade spaces, and amphitheaters began to appear.

Simultaneously with sculpture, sculpture developed, which changed during the entire period of the existence of Ancient Greece. If in the archaic period there were always robes on the sculptures of people, then in the classical era the main attention of the masters concentrated on the human body. It was customary to portray physically developed, strong, athletic people, which emphasized the inner and outer beauty. In Hellenism, sculptures began to be metaphorical in nature, exaggerations, splendor, which did not exist before, appeared in works of art.

The Greeks were also distinguished by their special painting technique, samples of which have practically not survived to this day. But the drawings can be seen on the vases. The Greeks used two methods of painting such items as black-figure and red-figure. The first was characterized by the use of black lacquer to depict people and animals. And the red-figure meant full painting of the black background, the figures were made red, and the black varnish helped to clearly draw the details.

During the celebration of the festival of winemaking, which was dedicated to the god Dionysus, the Greek theater began to take shape. With its inception, music and literature began to actively develop. Often these trends were not separated from each other, which made both literature and theater an organic whole. In the performances, it was customary to use special masks that were worn only by male actors. Women did not take part in the performances.

The special role of the theater in the daily and social life of Greece is evidenced by the large number of theaters and amphitheatres. Neither festivities nor festivities were complete without performances. The theater was distinguished by a wide variety of plots and themes, genres. These were comedies, and tragedies, and satires, and ironic performances on the topic of the day.

The scientific knowledge of the Greeks developed in different areas - philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, geometry, biology, physics, chemistry, history. A special place among knowledge was occupied by philosophy, which was engaged in the study of the problems of the origin of space, planets, man, and the search for answers to questions related to immortality. In Hellas, several schools of thought were formed, the outstanding representatives of which were Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Thales, Herodotus, etc.

The schools of Ancient Greece taught literature, grammar, mathematics, history, astronomy, philosophy. Physical education was mandatory so that a person's personality develops harmoniously.

The most famous heritage of the Greeks is the Olympic Games, which were created in order to praise the gods and bring them various honors. At first, these were local competitions, which eventually developed to common Greek ones. Athletes from different policies of Hellas took part in the competition, trying to get the status of the best athlete. The main competitions took place in such a discipline as pentathlon, now it is also present at the Olympic Games.

The history of the development of Ancient Greece. The era of ancient Greece originates from its existence in the III millennium BC and lasted before the 1st century BC... on the south of the Balkan Peninsula and islands in the west of Asia Minor. By the end of the 7th century BC. Greek culture has become as prosperous as possible. The Greeks made great strides in the fine arts, monumental construction, solving the mysteries of mathematics and medicine, and developing social ideas. They created a system of government in which all citizens had a voice in deciding critical issues.

But Ancient Greece was not a single state. The mainland and islands were divided into many city-states surrounded by rural settlements. The most powerful city-states were Athens which became in 5th century BC... center Greek civilization... Athens had a well-trained army and the most powerful ancient navy in the world. Trier, ships with 3 rows of oars on each side, made up the bulk of the Greek combat fleet.

Athens

Athens were the most prosperous city in Greece. Huge bronze statue Athena the Protectors towered at a height of 9 meters, and in the temple Erechtheion there was an ancient wooden statue. There was a huge altar on the side of the temple. Main temple Athens was called Parthenon ... It was built in 447-438 biennium BC... of sparkling white marble. The roof was covered with marble tiles. The frieze was decorated with scenes of battles of centaurs - mythical creatures, half-humans, half-horses. The magnificent city owned silver mines and carried on international trade through the port in Piraeus ... Towered on the hill Acropolis(upper city), a sacred place with temples and sanctuaries of the goddess Athena. Below lay a city with cobbled streets, splendid buildings, and a marketplace called agora, where the people's meetings were held. Great philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle lived in Athens.
On the festivals of Athens, there were crowded religious processions that entered the sacred land of the Acropolis through marble gates - Propylaea.

People power

The city-states of Greece were called policies(from which the word originated politics). Around 510 BC e. the policies got rid of the kings and preferred the rule of a group of noble people ( oligarchies) or one influential politician ( Tirana). In 508 BC. appeared in Athens democracy, or People power... Under the new device, male citizens resolved various issues by voting in assembly- the assembly of the people. Women, foreigners and slaves were not allowed to vote.
In 443-429 BC... Athenians elected a major politician as ruler Pericles who started construction temple on the Acropolis.

Culture and craft

In Greece, for the first time were born Olympic Gamesin 776 BC... and later became part of the festivities in honor of the god Zeus. In a democratic society, the politician had to own oratory. The first historical thinker named appears Herodotus, in the near future they began to call him "the father of history". He was able to describe all historical events in a believable and honest way. Greeks visited Delphic Oracle who, according to legend, could tell a lot about the future useful information... Mount Olympus was considered the abode of the gods and was the most sacred place in the Greek religion.
Thessaly It was famous for horse breeding due to its excellent and extensive pastures. The Greeks made their magnificent painted ceramics from a special clay, which acquired a red color during firing. V Lydia, and later in Athens, the first coins began to be minted with the emblem of an owl of one of the goddesses. There were silver mines in Greece Lauria, which were famous for their deposits of precious metals.
Greek women themselves weaved most of the fabrics to make linen and clothing for their home. They wore clothes ionic and Doric style. During the harvest, the girls blew grain, separating it from the chaff.

Architecture of greece

The Greeks built grandiose temples that were built on a stepped platform. They were surrounded by a colonnade. Inside there was a main hall with a statue of a god or goddess and a repository for temple treasures.
The outside of the temple was decorated with bas-reliefs and sculptures, traditionally painted in red and blue. At first the temples were made of wood, but from the 6th century AD. they began to be built of stone or marble and covered with tiles.
Residential buildings were built by the Greeks simple from brick and wood, with earthen floors. But public buildings, especially temples, were spared neither money nor labor. The architects strived for harmony of proportions. The buildings were usually colonized. There were two main styles - the Doric, austere, with squat smooth columns, and the more refined Ionic, with slender graceful columns. Public buildings were usually decorated with statues and murals.

Science and knowledge

Knowledge of Ancient Greece... In the VI century BC. Greek scientists began to strive for knowledge of the structure of the universe. They were called philosophers, that is, "lovers of wisdom." They studied the structure of the human body, solved mathematical problems and followed the movement of the planets. Alexander the Great's mentor Aristotle, for example, described hundreds of animal species. Research by Greek scientists laid the foundation for modern biology, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy. Science of Ancient Greece was one of the most unique and peculiar in the ancient world.

Olympic Games

Sports were part of all major religious festivals in Greece. The Olympic Games in honor of Zeus were considered the main ones. They were held every 4 years and lasted 5 days. Many of the Olympic events, such as javelin throwing or wrestling, were associated with the military training required by every man. During the games, wars were interrupted so that participants from all over the country could arrive at Olympia. The winners of the games became celebrities.
The female sex was forbidden to watch and participate in the Olympic Games.

Theatre

The first great dramatic works were created by the Greeks. Poets performed their songs at Dionysia - holidays in honor of the god Dionysus. Gradually, the songs became longer, the number of performers grew, and the songs turned into theatrical performances. There were 3 types of plays - tragedy, comedy and satire. The best play in each genre was awarded. Special buildings were erected for theaters, without roofs. The actors were wearing masks, and all roles, even women, were played by men.

Religion

The names of the gods of Ancient Greece.
The Greeks had 12 main gods :
1) Zeus- the king of the gods, the thunderer; an eagle was considered his cult bird
2) Athena- the daughter of Zeus, was the goddess of wisdom and war, the patroness of Athens. The owl was her cult bird
3) Artemis- the hunter, was the goddess of the moon, the patroness of women and children
4) Aphrodite- goddess of love and beauty
5) Demeter- the goddess of fertility and agriculture. During sowing, the Greeks organized holidays in her honor
6) Poseidon- god of the sea, brother of Zeus and Pluto, with his trident he could cause a storm
7) Hera- goddess, wife of Zeus, patroness of women
8) Hestia- goddess of the hearth, sister of Hera
9) Apollo- god of the sun and music
10) Pluto- god of the underworld
11) Ares- god, son of Zeus and Hera
12) Hermes- god, the son of Zeus and one of his beloved, messenger of the gods

Sparta

Sparta ruled in the south of Greece, in Peloponnese... After the conquest Messenia and Arcadia she became the most powerful state in Greece. The Spartans devoted themselves entirely to war. All true Spartans were supposed to be warriors, their training, which began at the age of 7, was extremely harsh.
Boys were subjected to corporal punishment to teach them pain and the ability to overcome fear in battle.
The girls were raised strong so that they would have healthy children in the future. All this helped Sparta win Peloponnese Wars with Athens in 431-404 BC.
The Spartans who did not show sufficient courage were ordered to shave off half of their beards. They were subjected to general ridicule and humiliation.
Athens and Sparta were constant rivals and always at enmity.

Greco-Persian Wars

Wars of Ancient Greece... The Persians invaded Greece in 490 and 480 BC. The Greeks survived the sack of Athens and the death of a small Spartan army defending a narrow passage in the gorge Thermopylae... Despite the losses, they still won, winning the battles of Marathon, at Payei and sea battle at Salamina... The Athenian leader convinced the government to create its own warships. The Greek fleet became a mighty force, the main weapon of which was trier ship ramming enemy ships below the waterline. The ram was usually made of bronze. The triremes smashed the formation of enemy ships, rammed them and hid from sight.
The decisive battle took place at Salamis islands and ended with the defeat of the Persian king Xerxes who invaded Greece. The Persians were lured into a trap - a narrow strait between Salamis and the mainland - and defeated.
Bucephalus. During the campaigns, Alexander left his people in the conquered lands. This contributed to the widespread dissemination of Greek culture and language, and ultimately the assimilation of the achievements of Greek science and architecture by later civilizations.

Military campaigns of Alexander

Conquering Asia Minor, Alexander won the battles with the Persians at Granicus and Issus. Turning south, he conquered Phenicia, Judea and Egypt, where he was received as Pharaoh. The Macedonian visited the temple of the god Amun in Siwa, where he recognized him as his son, and then defeated the Persians in the battle of Gaugamela. The Persian king Darius III fled after the crushing defeat inflicted on him by Alexander the Great. Darius was killed soon after. After a drunken revelry in Persepolis, Alexander ordered the palace to be burned before moving on to India. Farther great commander went to India and again became the winner in the battle at the Hydasp River, having entered into a battle with the war elephants of King Pora. He would have continued his campaigns further, but the army was already exhausted.

Alexander the Great died 323 BC in Babylon from fever on the eve of the campaign to Arabia.
He was buried in Alexandria. He was at that time only 33 years old.

With summer approaching, many are planning to leave for a vacation. Some choose their place of rest on their own, some on the recommendations of tour operators. In both cases, the answer will be the same - Greece at the end of May. There are several reasons for this.

The first reason is to sunbathe. The fact is that Greece is the leader among European countries in length sandy beaches... The best in Greece is Navayo on Zikinth. The landscape of this beach is decorated with a ship that was wrecked here in 1980. Another beach is Busulas on the Haldiki peninsula. Business card this beach is served by its white sand for almost 5 kilometers. But the most popular beach is Psarou in Mykonos. Every celebrity considers it his duty to check in there. To get to this beach, you need to book sun loungers in advance. Otherwise, there is a chance not to pass. Most recently, the Greek authorities made all beaches public and free. Therefore, the reason for the refusal may be “the lack of free sunbeds”. However, if a person decides to sunbathe on his own towel, then no one can forbid him. There are many different beaches. Therefore, before the trip, it is best to familiarize yourself with them on the Internet, with the help of reviews from others. You need to enter something like "Greece vacation in May reviews" or "Greece beaches reviews"

The second reason is Christian shrines. On the territory of Greece there are 2 main Orthodox places: the monasteries of Meteora and the famous Mount Athos. But to visit Mount Athos you only need to be ... a man. The fact is that a visit to Mount Athos is the earthly lot of the Mother of God and none of the women except her should appear there. There is a belief that women who were deceived into the peninsula went missing. In order for men to get to the peninsula, you need to make a diamonithirion (something like a visa) in advance. And women only have to visit the monasteries of Meteora, which are located high on the rocks.

The third reason is Greek cuisine... Almost everyone is familiar with such a dish as Greek salad. The secret to Greek salad is that you need fresh vegetables and good olive oil. Therefore, do not be afraid to order this dish at roadside eateries in Greece. Other equally tasty dishes are tzatziki (yoghurt with garlic and cucumbers), souvlaki (kebabs) or moussaka (eggplant casserole). Moreover, the farther from the tourist zone you are and the more unnoticeable the cafe is, the tastier the dishes promise to be. For wealthy people, the Spondi or Nammos restaurant is perfect. By the way, Nammos is located near the Psarou beach, which was mentioned earlier.

The fourth reason is to get married. The Greek people are incredibly fun-loving. And the wedding is a wonderful occasion. The best way to do your wedding is at the St. NicolasBay, where the beach chapel is located. After such a wedding, a married couple should never have disagreements. The most picturesque places for weddings are the islands of Mykonos and Santorini, where the largest number of weddings take place.

The fifth reason is sweets. Greece has a number of its own sweets, which are famous not only there. For example, halva or baklava is familiar to any person. It is recommended to try kaimaki - this is ice cream, but harder than usual. Another sweetness worth trying is galactobureko. This is a puff pastry with mascarpone inside. There are many more reasons for vacationing in Greece.