Where the ancient Russian state was located. Political, ethnic and economic geography of the ancient Russian state

Population and territory
Education centers the old Russian state became the cities of Kiev and Novgorod. Favorably located on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", they united around themselves two groups of East Slavic tribes - northern and southern.
The sources do not provide information on the population size in Ancient Rus. The well-known demographer B. Ts. Urlanis, using indirect data, believes that by the beginning of the second millennium AD, the territory of Kievan Rus was 1.1 million square meters. km., and the population is 4.5 million people.
The territory of the ancient Russian state was formed from the lands that were occupied by the tribal unions mentioned in the "Tale of Bygone Years" (glade, Volhynians, Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi, Dregovichi, Krivichi, Vyatichi, Slovenia, etc.). The original, the most ancient was the state territory of the Middle Dnieper region, the Russian land itself, headed by Kiev.
At the end of the 9th - the second half of the 11th centuries. the power of the Kiev princes extends to Novgorod the Great, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov, Polotsk, Murom, Ryazan - the centers of vast lands located in the north, north-east and north-west of the East European Plain. In the south, the expansion of the territory also continued, primarily the Kiev proper, then the Chernigov and Pereyaslavsky principalities. Foreign-language, alien formations (Muroma, Merya, Goliad, etc.) that became part of the Old Russian state became its integral part. Kievan Rus turned into one of the largest and most powerful states of medieval Europe.
The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state was of great progressive importance for the further independent political, economic and cultural development of the East Slavic tribes and other tribal associations that were part of it.
Tax system
With the formation of the state, the formation of a system of its relations with the population, including the production of products, tax collection, and military service, is taking place.

The very first form of domination and subordination was the collection of tribute to the state, which was called polyudye. This tribute was collected from the entire population (people). Polyudye was an expression of the prince's supreme right to land and the establishment of the concept of citizenship.
To collect this tribute, the prince and his retinue annually from November to April traveled around the vast territories under their control or sent their governors there. Food, furs, honey, wax, etc. were collected.
The size of the tribute, the place and time of collection were not determined in advance. Senior warriors with their detachments could collect more tribute than the prince. Such aggressive methods aroused popular protest. So, in 945 in the Drevlyansky land there was an uprising against Prince Igor, he was killed. His wife, Princess Olga, carried out a tax reform, establishing "lessons" - the norms of tribute, as well as the time and place of its collection - "churchyards". These were the points where the trade took place. The reform of Princess Olga was in Kievan Rus the first attempt to streamline the collection of tribute. A unit of taxation was introduced: in some places it was “smoke” (family), in others it was “plow” or “ralo”, when a separate farm was taxed. Several "smokes" made up the "courtyard". Less commonly, a person was considered the unit of taxation.
With the development of large-scale landownership and the strengthening of the state, the forms of exploitation changed and differentiated - in some cases, the tribute turned into a tax levied in favor of the prince, the state; in others - in the feudal rent paid to the feudal lord.
Monuments of law
Legal norms played an important role in strengthening the feudal system. The earliest surviving monuments of ancient Russian feudal law are the treaties of the Kiev princes with the Byzantine Empire (911, 944, 971), which contain information about the “Russian Law”. These agreements contain a number of articles on the right of ownership and inheritance, on prisoners and "servants", etc.
But the first Old Russian code of laws was Russkaya Pravda, which was in effect from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The first part of the Brief Edition of Russkaya Pravda, the so-called Ancient Pravda, in all 18 articles gives a very limited range of punishable crimes: from murder, beatings to hiding an escaped slave, damage to someone else's weapons and clothing. Although it speaks of such a vestige as the right of relatives to a blood feud for murder, however, blood feud is already dying out and is being replaced by monetary fines for murder (vira) by a court verdict.
"Russkaya Pravda" determined the privileges of the feudal lord, the position of the peasants and other groups of the population dependent on him, normatively secured the feudal lord's ownership of land. A whole series of articles provided for punishment for attempting to encroach on this property. Special articles established punishment for plowing the border, for robbing a boyar's estate, for killing the servants of a feudal lord (tiuns, fires, etc.).
"Russkaya Pravda" reflected the origin of the feudal dependence of the population through both economic and non-economic coercion. The economic coercion consisted in the fact that the ruined smerd himself was forced to go into bondage to a secular or church feudal lord. In Russkaya Pravda, these are ryadovichs and purchases *.
* Ryadovichi - persons who were hired to work under a number (contract). If they did not fulfill their obligations, they could become slaves. Purchases - members of the community who took the ssula (kupa) for a certain period.
The Pravda Yaroslavichi reflects the structure of the patrimony as a form of land ownership and organization of production. Its center was the mansion of the prince or boyar, the houses of his entourage, stables, cattle.
Feudalization process
Initially, the Slavic tribes did not have estates and all residents had equal rights. However, as it develops productive forces identified certain groups of the population, differing among themselves in terms of well-being and social status. There was a nobility, which included the "best", "stupid", "big", "oldest", "deliberate" men. The highest status was held by the "zemstvo boyars". These included representatives of the tribal aristocracy, descendants of clan elders, as well as merchants who lived on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The highest social strata included the supreme vigilantes, "princes' men".
In the X-XI centuries. in Kievan Rus, the process of feudalization intensified. This was manifested in the offensive of the tribal leaders and elders on the communal lands. The intensification of the seizure of communal lands was explained to a certain extent by the fact that by this time arable farming and a two-field crop rotation system were strengthening. Compared to the shifting and slash-and-burn systems, with a two-field crop rotation, there is a significant increase in interest in securing land in permanent possession. Therefore, in Kievan Rus, private ownership of land is being intensively formed, a process is underway, which is called the "chartering" of lands. Private ownership of land was called patrimony (patrimony). A fiefdom is ownership of land that can be bought, sold, or inherited. As a rule, it appeared by the addition of land plots by noble people to other members of the community, in particular, the impoverished. The pleasures of ordinary members of the community were often joined not for debt, but forcibly. Thus, in Russia, patrimonials turned into large landowners.
The patrimony could be princely, boyar, monastic, church. From this period, the smerds not only pay tribute to the state, but also become dependent on the feudal lord (boyar) and pay him a quitrent (natural) for using the land or work out corvee, although during this period a significant number of residents still remained independent of the boyars.

The territory of the Old Russian state took shape for a long time. The first stage of the unification of the territory can be conditionally limited to 862–882. Until the middle of the IX century. some East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes were forced to pay tribute to their stronger neighbors. Under 859, the PVL reports that the Varangians "from overseas" levied tribute from the Chudi, Ilmen Slovenes, Meri and Krivichi, and the Khazars from the Glades, Northerners and Vyatichi (another entry says that until 885 the Khazars were paid tribute and Radimichi ). The beginning of the consolidation of the territory of Russia was laid by the events described under 862, when, refusing to pay tribute to the Varangians, the northern union of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes called (also from the Varangians, but apparently from a different tribe) Rurik and his brothers. The word "Rus" originally, according to the chronicler, was the name of the Varangian tribe, from which Rurik and his relatives came. In science, disputes still continue about the reliability of both the entire plot about the vocation of the Varangians, and about this interpretation of the term, but the chronicle, describing the events of this time, uses the word "Rus" only to designate the Varangian princes with their retinues.

According to the PVL, the Varangians were summoned to Chud, Slovenia, Krivichi and all. It is interesting that in this plot the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes act together, and the Scandinavian dynasty is calling to rule, that is, the state that was already being formed was polyethnic. The chronicle reports that Rurik (at first with his brothers, and then independently) ruled not only over the four tribes who called him, but also over the Meray and Muroma. The following cities became control centers: Novgorod, Izborsk, Beloozero, Polotsk, Rostov and Murom. Other sources report that the original residence of Rurik was Ladoga. Thus, in the north of Eastern Europe, a multiethnic proto-state union was formed. At the same time, the warriors Askold and Dir, who separated from Rurik, occupied Kiev and subjugated the glades.

The second stage of the folding of the territory of the Old Russian state began in 882, when Rurik's successor Oleg seized Kiev and established power over the glades, then over the Drevlyans (883), northerners (884) and Radimichs (885). In Oleg's campaign to Constantinople (907), his army mentions (in addition to the previously subordinate tribes) Vyatichi, White Croats, Dulebs and Tivertsy, apparently also falling under his rule at that time. By the end of Oleg's reign in 913, the territory of the state covered the areas of settlement of most of the East Slavic tribes and parts of the Finno-Ugric tribes. Kiev became the capital, and Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Lyubech and Pskov were added to the cities that were the centers of administrative-territorial administration.

The third stage took the X - the first half of the XI century, when the Old Russian state united the territory from to and from the Carpathians to the Middle Volga. The process of subjugating the tribes to the Kiev princes was quite complicated, some of them repeatedly restored their independence for some time. So, the Drevlyans tried twice to leave Kiev under Igor (in 913 and 945) and only Olga's cruel reprisals against the rebels in 945-946. finally brought them to submission. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute on the main territory of the state, establishing special points for this in the land of the Drevlyans, in the vicinity of Novgorod (along Msta and Luga), along the Dnieper and Desna. In 966 Svyatoslav subdued and imposed a tribute on the Vyatichi. This prince was active in foreign policy, fought with the Volga Bulgars, the Khazar Khaganate, the Pechenegs and the Byzantine Empire. Since he spent most of his time on campaigns, he used his sons as rulers or governors in certain territories of his state: from 970 Yaropolk sat in Kiev, Oleg among the Drevlyans, Vladimir in Novgorod.

Great value for decoration state territory had the activity of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). He conquered the Northern Carpathian region, with the cities of Przemysl and Cherven (982), subdued the Yatvingians (983), suppressed the attempts of the Vyatichi (981–982) and Radimichi (984) to eliminate dependence on Kiev. He also used his sons as governors in certain territories. The main centers of administrative management were the cities of Novgorod, Polotsk, Turov, Rostov, Murom, Vladimir Volynsky and Tmutarakan (Tmutarakan). Vladimir took measures to strengthen the defense of Kiev and its surrounding territory, for which in 988-989. Several fortress cities were built on the left bank of the Dnieper along the Desna, Oster, Sula, Trubezh rivers (at the end of the 10th century, the Pechenegs usually approached Kiev along this territory). To the west of Kiev, on the small river Irpen, Belgorod was founded. These fortress cities were inhabited by representatives of various tribes that were part of the state under Vladimir.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise, who established himself on the Kiev table in 1019, was also marked by the strengthening of the borders of the Russian land. True, at first, internal strife was the main occupation of the princes. In 1026-1036. Russia was generally divided between Yaroslav and his younger brother Mstislav: the lands east of the Dnieper were the volost of Mstislav, who sat in Chernigov, and the right bank belonged to his older brother, the Kiev prince. Only after the death of his brother Yaroslav became the sole ruler of the state. Nevertheless, he constantly took measures to expand and strengthen the boundaries of the subject territory. In 1030, he subdued the Chud (Estonians) and founded Yuryev to the west of Lake Peipsi to govern them. Yaroslavl arose in the same way in the land of the Merin. In 1030-1031. Russian princes, taking advantage of the internal strife in the Polish kingdom, invaded its territory north of the Carpathians and occupied several cities (in particular, Belz). The captured Yaroslav began to settle in new fortresses along the Ros, thus creating a barrier from the side of the steppe. Apparently, this helped him in 1036 to inflict a decisive defeat on the Pechenegs, after which they ceased to pose a threat to Russia. At the turn of the 30s-40s. XI century the Kiev prince made several campaigns against the tribes in the north-west: the Yatvingians, Lithuania, the Mazovshans (a West Slavic tribe located on the right bank of the Vistula). The result of these campaigns was, as a rule, the collection of tribute and the capture of captives.

Thus, by 1054 the Old Russian state reached its greatest expansion. In the west, the possessions of the Kiev princes entered the lands of the Chudi (Estonians), Letgols, Zimegols and Yatvingians, the Volynians, a significant part of the white lands, obeyed them. The most mobile were the southern and southeastern borders, which was largely facilitated by the raids of the nomads. As part of Russia, the Tmutarakan principality existed, located on the Black coast and, in the lower reaches of the Kuban and on the Kerch Peninsula c. On the left bank of the Dnieper, the state included regions along the Vorskla River, the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets, Oskol and Don. Kievan Rus also included the lands of the Vyatichi, Meshchera, and Murom. Tribute to Kiev was paid by the Zavolochskaya chud and Korela. In the XI century. Slavic colonization covered new territories in the northeast. Cities appeared that served as strongholds for this colonization and the assertion of the power of the Kiev princes over the Finno-Ugric tribes. In the lands of the Merians, Yaroslavl joins Rostov and Suzdal, and the Meshcheras - Ryazan, Pereyaslavl, Ryazansky and Pronsk. From Novgorod the Slavs settled in the lands of Vodi, Obonezhie and Zavolochye.

Geography of the economy of Russia

The main economic occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. It was distributed throughout the territory of Russia and had local differences, determined by both geographical factors and the level of development of agriculture. It should be borne in mind that vast forests lay in the northern part of the East European Plain. The border of this region in the south ran approximately along the line Vladimir Volynsky - Kiev - Novgorod Seversky - the middle course of the Oka - Ryazan. To the south of it, a strip of forest-steppe began, stretching parallel to the forest zone from the southwest to the northeast. In the left bank of the Dnieper towards the Don, there was less forest, although the forest-steppe zone itself was expanding.

Kievan Rus lay mainly in the zone of podzolic and sod-podzolic soils. soils are characteristic only for the Middle Dnieper region (south of the Desna). Landscape, soil, climatic conditions in the south, in the area of Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, contributed to the establishment of arable farming here with a shifting or fallow land use system. With a wide distribution throughout the territory of Russia, plows in the south were also used by plows and rails. Northern regions, covering zones of podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils with large forest areas, wetlands, the worst climatic conditions, in general, were less convenient for farming. The possibilities for the development of these lands at that time were limited, therefore the slash (fire) farming system prevailed in the north for a long time. The main agricultural crops were rye, wheat, barley, millet, and peas. They also sowed flax (mainly in the north), hops and poppy seeds. Horticulture and horticulture developed.

Cattle breeding was closely connected with agriculture. Almost all types of domestic animals known today were found in ancient Russian farms. Along with the horse as the main draft force, cows, sheep, pigs, chickens, geese, ducks, etc. were raised. In the development of cattle breeding, as in, there were also some, although not so sharp, differences between the northern and southern regions. Arable farming in the south required the use of ox and horse as a draft force on a wider scale than in the north. This, apparently, explains the presence of large herds of cattle and horses in large patrimonial farms in the south, which is noted by the sources.

Significant place in economic activity occupied by hunting, fishing and bee-keeping. Their share was especially great in the northern regions, rich in forests and reservoirs, where agriculture could not fully satisfy the needs of the population. The hunting industry provided residents not only with food, but also clothes and shoes, which were made from animal skins and fur. The objects of the hunt were tur, elk, bear, deer, wild boar, hare, lynx, fox, sable, marten, ermine, squirrel, arctic fox. The development of the hunting industry was associated with the collection of tribute by the princes with furs, and also with the fact that furs were already a valuable object of trade at that time. A lot of furs were caught in the Novgorod land, in the regions of the Northern Dvina, Pechora, Yugra (polar regions of the Urals). Hunting also developed as a way of free pastime, entertainment for the nobility. This is evidenced, for example, by the colorful description of the hunting exploits of Prince Vladimir Monomakh in his "Instructions for Children".

Fishing played a certain role in the economy of Ancient Rus. Fish occupied a large place in the diet of that time. The adoption of Christianity with its system of fasts and fast days of the week established fish as one of the main components of food. In addition to the main fishing gear - spear, hook, seine, nonsense, during the period of the mass movement of fish from the X-XI centuries. widely used special methods of fishing - "stabbing" and "ezy" (structures that blocked the river). Commercial fishing was carried out in the Dnieper, Seim, Pripyat, Western Dvina, Oka and other rivers. Beekeeping has reached a high level - collecting honey and wax from wild forest bees.

Handicraft production consisted of more than 60 specialties (processing of iron, non-ferrous metals, wood, stone, leather and furs, making fabrics and clothes, making ceramics, jewelry, etc.) and was divided into rural (rural) and urban. The raw materials for the production and processing of iron were marsh, lake and sod ores, which are widespread in Eastern Europe... The southern border of their distribution coincides with the southern border of the forest-steppe. Iron production was labor-intensive, and it was sourced from areas especially wealthy iron ores... One of these areas was located in the north, between Ladoga and Lake Peipsi... Iron was also produced in the south-west of Russia. It was produced by the raw-blown method in blast furnaces, most of which arose in the immediate vicinity of sources of raw materials, although in a number of places the ore was imported. Iron production was mainly developed in the countryside with its subsequent delivery to cities.

In the lands of the Finno-Ugric tribes, which were either part of the Old Russian state, or directly adjacent to it, the extent of the spread of agriculture and its level were not the same everywhere. If in the Murom and Meshchera lands already in the IX century. farming techniques introduced by the Slavs began to prevail, and it was the main occupation of the population, then cattle breeding was the leading one in the economy, although agriculture also took place. Almost everywhere, the role of hunting, fishing, bee-keeping was great, but here, too, some areas (the lands of the Mordovians and) stood out in this regard. In the northern and northeastern regions of Eastern Europe, the main occupation of the population - Korel, Sami, Chudi Zavolochskaya, Pechora, Ugra, Perm and others - were hunting, fishing, and partially cattle breeding.

Placement of cities

Ancient Russia seemed to contemporaries as a vast country with a large population, living both in rural settlements and in cities. There are a number of difficulties in determining the number of cities and their location. They are connected both with the lack of clarity of the very concept of "city", and with the fact that the location of some cities (which have not survived for a number of reasons) is difficult to establish. It should also be borne in mind that the sources contain only fragmentary information about the ancient Russian cities, they report about them accidentally and fleetingly, it is often impossible to judge from them even the time of the emergence of a particular city. The very name "city", "city" in Russia meant a fortified settlement, a fenced-in place. In this sense, the chronicles often use the term "city", opposing it to the surrounding "posad" - the unfortified part of the settlement. Sometimes the "city" means the entire settlement in the complex, but in this case, a prerequisite is the presence of fortifications that protect the central part.

According to MN Tikhomirov's calculations, the chronicles testify to the existence in the 9th-10th centuries. 25 cities. Of these, Beloozero, Izborsk, Kiev, Ladoga, Lyubech, Murom, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, Smolensk and Chernigov date back to the 9th century. Probably, other cities mentioned in the 10th century existed earlier, because the chronicles did not always name a particular city for the first time exactly in the year of its foundation. There is also the opposite problem. For example, Novgorod is mentioned in sources in connection with the events of the 9th century, and archaeologists have so far found traces of residential buildings on its territory only in the middle of the 10th century. Nevertheless, if we rely solely on the data of the annals, then for the XI century. the existence of 64 more cities is recorded, in the XII century. 135 cities are mentioned again, and in the XIII century. (up to 1237) - 47. Thus, there is an increase in the number of cities: in the X century. - 25, in the XI century. - 89, in the XII century. - 224 and by 1237 - 271. Given that this list of cities is based on chronicle news and that it does not include some settlements referred to as cities in other sources, we can assume that the approximate number of cities in Russia at the beginning of the XIII century ... was 300.

Not only the number of cities changes over time. The city itself is changing. Initially, the territory of Russian cities (IX-X centuries) was limited to the boundaries of the fortress. The formation of the city as a center of artisans and merchants is only being planned. But already during this period, under its walls, in some way, independent settlements arose. Initially, they do not belong to the city, but around the end of the 10th century. turn into a part of it - the outskirts or settlements with artisan or commercial population, which, by virtue of their occupations, does not live on a mountain - a hill, where the fortress was usually located, but below by the river, on the hem. At the same time, the fortified part sometimes acquired, in addition to the general name "city", "city" also special (, Krom, Detinets, etc.)

The origin of Russian cities is a separate problem in historical science. The greatest importance to the geographical factor in this process was, perhaps, attached to V.O. Klyuchevsky. The emergence of ancient Russian cities is considered by him as a consequence of the success of the Eastern trade of the Slavs, which began in the 8th century. It was to this time that Klyuchevsky attributed the emergence of "the most ancient cities in Russia with commercial and industrial districts stretching to them." However, the development of trade alone can hardly explain the emergence of cities, since many of them were located away from the main trade routes. There were other reasons for their appearance. In particular, this can include the urban planning activities of the princes, who needed cities as centers for managing individual tribes and collecting tribute, as well as strategic military strongholds. Do not forget about the development of the craft, which was concentrated in cities. On the other hand, cities in Russia more often arose in the most agriculturally developed regions and served as protection for the rural population from enemies and as a place for marketing products. It should be concluded that if one of the above factors played a decisive role in the emergence of each particular city, then all circumstances influenced its further development to a greater or lesser extent.

Since a significant part of the cities of Russia has developed as centers associated with agricultural production, on the map of the Old Russian state, one can distinguish the areas of the greatest concentration of cities, as if uniting agricultural districts. The first "cluster" of cities covers the Middle Dnieper ( oldest cities- Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Lyubech, Novgorod Seversky, Vyshgorod); the second - southwestern Russia (Galich, Vladimir Volynsky, Przemysl); the third - the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Western Dvina (Polotsk, Smolensk, Orsha); the fourth is the Volga-Oka interfluve (Rostov, Suzdal); the fifth - the middle and lower course of the Oka (Murom, Ryazan). There were cities in other regions, but the above-mentioned territories were distinguished economically and were distinguished by developed agriculture.

The names of cities deserve special attention, since they can significantly expand our knowledge about the circumstances of the emergence of one or another settlement... For example, one of largest cities southwestern Russia - the city of Galich - from ancient times was the center of the salt trade, near it were large deposits salt. Its name has a Celtic root "hal" meaning "salt" and has migrated to some European languages. In Central, there are quite a lot of toponyms originating from the same root and connected, in one way or another, with salt. When settlements began to emerge in northeastern Rus' at places where salt was mined, their names were often given by analogy with the southwestern center. This is how the toponyms Galich Mersky and Sol Galitskaya (northeast of Kostroma) appeared. Another of the most ancient cities of Russia - Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl) - was mentioned in the chronicle for the first time around 907. It is located on the small river Trubezh, the left tributary of the Dnieper. The form of its name means "owned or founded by Pereyaslav" (Old Slavic personal name). It is not known, however, which Pereyaslav is in question, since in the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. princes with such a name are not known to us. At the end of the XI century. Pereyaslavl Ryazan appeared, and in 1152 Pereyaslavl Zalessky was founded by Yuri Dolgoruky. I wonder what two last cities are located on rivers bearing the same name - Trubezh (in the first case it flows into the Oka, and in the second - into the Kleshchino (Pleshcheevo) lake). Undoubtedly, both times the names of the city and the river were carried over by settlers (or city planners) and were given "in honor" of the already existing toponym and hydronym.

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ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE

the first state that emerged in Vost. Europe as a result of the unification by Prince Oleg in 882 of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kiev, as well as the lands located on the "path from the Varangians to the Greeks" and its branches. The capital is Kiev, hence another name is Kievan Rus. The traditional old name is Rus, Russian land. It emerged as an early feudal state, where primitive communal and, to a lesser extent, slaveholding relations occupied an important place in the establishment of feudal relations. The ruling dynasty is the Rurikovichs, named after the legendary prince Rurik, who, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, was called to Novgorod. The Old Russian state was a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev. The transfer of the throne took place from brother to brother, that is, to the eldest in the princely family (ladder, or next, order of succession to the throne). The first Kiev princes (Oleg, Igor, Olga) gradually united around Kiev the lands of the Eastern Slavs and the smaller peoples living on them. They pursued an active foreign policy (campaigns against Byzantium, Khazaria, Volga Bulgaria, wars with nomadic Pechenegs), which accelerated the process of differentiation of Russian society. Internal development led to the formation of feudal land ownership on the basis of arable farming. Under Vladimir I (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1Q19-1054), the state experienced a period of its greatest prosperity. The lands of the Eastern Slavs were included in the Old Russian state, the problem of defense was solved southern borders from the steppe nomads (Pechenegs, and then Polovtsians) by the construction of ramparts and the creation of heroic outposts. Adopted as a single state religion - Christianity (988). The code of laws "Russkaya Pravda" testifies to the formation of private boyar estates and state feudal land tenure while preserving the primitive and slave-owning vestiges. Russia has established extensive ties through marriage alliances with the royal courts of Europe (Byzantium, France, England, Germany, Scandinavian countries) and nomadic neighbors. For the first time Yaroslav the Wise appointed the Russian priest Llarion as metropolitan. Intensive stone construction was carried out. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, tendencies towards the fragmentation of Russia intensified. Under the sons of Yaroslav - Yaroslavichs (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod), under conditions of different levels of development in different lands and the emergence of patrimonial boyar land tenure under the dominance of natural economy, princely strife intensified, individual principalities tried to secede from Kiev. The Lyubech congress of princes (1097) decided to inherit the lands of their fathers by each branch of the princely family. Attempts to contain the disintegration of the Old Russian state were made by Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (1125-1132). At the beginning of the XII century. The Old Russian state split into separate lands and principalities.

Old Russian state (dr.-rus. and Art-Slav. Rs, Rskaѧ landѧ , Greek Ῥωσία , lat. Russia, Ruthenia, Ruscia, Ruzzia , Old Scand. Garðar, laterGarðaríki ), with 882 years also Kievan Rus - medieval state in Eastern Europe that arose in IX century by combining a number East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes ruled by the princes of the dynasty Rurikovich.

During the period of its highest prosperity, the Old Russian state with its capital in Kiev occupied territory from Taman Peninsula on South, Dniester and headwaters Vistula in the west to the headwaters Northern Dvina in the north and tributaries Volga in the east. To the middle XII century entered into a state feudal fragmentation and actually disintegrated one and a half dozen separate Russian principalities ruled by different branches of the Rurik dynasty. Kiev, having lost its political influence in favor of several new centers of power, continued to be formally considered the main table of Russia until Mongol invasion (1237 -1240 ), a Kiev principality remained in the collective possession of the Russian princes.

1 Title

2 Formation of the Old Russian state

2.1 Before the call of the Vikings
2.2 Board of Rurik
2.3 The problem of the emergence of statehood

3 History

3.1 The reign of Oleg the Prophetic
3.2 Igor Rurikovich
3.3 Olga
3.4 Svyatoslav Igorevich
3.5 Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise. Baptism of Russia
3.6 Changes in public administration in the late X - early XII centuries.
3.7 Decay

4 The nature of the statehood of the Russian lands

5 Population of Ancient Rus

6 Cities and fortresses

6.1 Cities
6.2 Fortresses and fortifications

7 Military organization

8 Economy

8.1 Monetary system
8.2 Agriculture
8.3 Crafts
8.4 Trading
8.5 Taxes (tribute)

9 Culture of Ancient Russia

9.1 Writing and education
9.2 Literature
9.3 Architecture
9.4 Painting
9.5 Folklore

10 Old Russian law

11 See also

12 Notes

Name

Russian history

East Slavs , people of Russia

Old Russian state (IX - XIII century )

Specific Rus (XII - XVI century ); (Union )

Novgorod Republic (1136 -1478 )

Vladimir principality (1157 -1389 )

Principality of Lithuania and Russia (1236 -1795 )

Muscovy (1263 -1547 )

Russian kingdom (1547 - 1721 )

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There are several historiographic names of the state that prevailed in literature in different time- "Old Russian state", "Ancient Rus", "Kievan Rus", "Kievan state".

The definition of "Old Russian" is not associated with the division generally accepted in historiography antiquities and Middle ages v Europe in the middle 1st millennium AD With regard to Russia, it is usually used to designate the so-called pre-Mongol period IX- middle XIII centuries to distinguish this era from the following periods of Russian history.

The term "Kievan Rus" originated in the first half 19th century , having gone through a significant evolution in the history of its use. One of the first to use it M. A. Maksimovich in his work "Where does the Russian land come from" (1837) in a narrow geographical sense to designate the Kiev principality, along with such phrases as "Red Rus", "Suzdal Rus", etc. The term was used in the same sense S. M. Soloviev("Rus Kievan", "Rus Chernigov", "Rus Rostov or Suzdal") , N. I. Kostomarov and D.I. Ilovaisky... In the second half 19th century the term acquired an additional, chronological dimension - one of the stages of Russian history and statehood. In this case, the Kiev period usually ended in 1169, which was associated with the idea of transferring the capital of Russia from Kiev to Vladimir, prevalent in pre-revolutionary historiography. . V.O. Klyuchevsky used this term unsystematically, sometimes combining narrow geographic and chronological frameworks and distinguishing "old Kievan Rus" from "New Rus, Upper Volga", sometimes implying by it all the lands of Rus in the corresponding period ... Have S. F. Platonova, A. E. Presnyakova and other authors of the early 20th century, the term began to be used in the state-political sense as a name for the state of all Eastern Slavs in an era when Kiev was a common political center. In the Ukrainian nationalist historiography of the same time, the qualifying term “Kievan Rus” was not particularly popular, since it implied the existence of other forms or manifestations of Rus (whether in a geographic or chronological sense). The founder of the Ukrainian historical school M. S. Grushevsky he almost did not use it, preferring the terms "Kiev state" or "Ruska power" ("Russian state", opposed in his version to the Moscow state).

The final approval of the concept of "Kievan Rus" in the state-political sense occurred in the Soviet era, when the academician B. D. Grekov his main works were published, which became textbooks: "Kievan Rus" (1939) and "Culture of Kievan Rus" (1944) ... Clarifying the meaning of the term, Grekov noted the following:

“I consider it necessary to point out once again that in my work I am dealing with Kievan Rus not in the narrow territorial sense of this term (Ukraine), but in that broad sense of the“ empire of Rurikovich ”corresponding to the Western European empire of Charlemagne, which includes a huge territory , on which several independent state units were subsequently formed " .

In those same years, another part of Soviet historians ( M.I. Artamonov , V. V. Mavrodin , A. N. Nasonov ) the term "Old Russian state" was introduced into scientific circulation (initially the adjective was written with a lowercase letter, soon it became a proper name). Among Soviet historians, it was most actively used. V. T. Pashuto and representatives of his school ... In general, both names functioned in parallel and were interchangeable. However, at present the term "Kievan Rus" is considered obsolete for a number of reasons. and is gradually going out of use in the Russian-speaking scientific community .

Formation of the Old Russian state

The Old Russian state arose on the trade paths "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on the lands of the East Slavic tribes - Ilmenian Slovenes, Krivichi, glade, then covering Drevlyan, Dregovichi, Polotsk, Radimichi, northerners.

Before the calling of the Vikings

See also: Baptism of Russia

After the death of Svyatoslav, civil strife broke out between his sons for the right to the throne ( 972 -978 or 980 ). Eldest son Yaropolk became the great Kiev prince, Oleg received the Drevlyan lands, and Vladimir- Novgorod. V 977 year Yaropolk defeated Oleg's squad, and Oleg himself died. Vladimir fled "overseas", but returned two years later with the Varangian squad. During civil strife Vladimir Svyatoslavich defended his rights to the throne (years of reign 980 -1015 ). Under him, the formation of the state territory of Ancient Russia was completed, Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus.

Under the prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich v 988 year the official religion of Russia becomes Christianity... Having become the prince of Kiev, Vladimir faced an increased Pechenezh threat. To protect himself from nomads, he builds on the border of the line of fortresses, the garrisons of which were recruited from the "best men" of the northern tribes. It was during the time of Vladimir that many Russians act epic telling about exploits heroes.

In cities, the oldest of which were Kiev, Novgorod, Ladoga, Smolensk, Polotsk, Izborsk, Chernihiv, Pereyaslavl, Turov, Rostov, Beloozero, Pleskov (Pskov), Tmutarakan, Murom, Ovruch, Vladimir-Volynsky, and others, crafts and trade developed. Written monuments were created ( "The Tale of Bygone Years", Novgorod Code, Ostrom world gospel, lives) and architecture ( Church of the Tithes, Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and eponymous cathedrals in Novgorod and Polotsk). O high level the literacy of the inhabitants of Russia is evidenced by the numerous birch bark letters... Rus conducted trade with southern and Western Slavs, Scandinavia, Byzantium, Western Europe, peoples Caucasus and Central Asia.

After the death of Vladimir, a new civil strife took place in Russia. Svyatopolk the Damned v 1015 killed his brothers Boris(according to another version, Boris was killed by Yaroslav's Scandinavian mercenaries), Gleb and Svyatoslav... Svyatopolk himself was defeated twice and died in exile. Boris and Gleb v 1071 year were canonized.

Silver medal of Yaroslav the Wise

Governing body Yaroslav the Wise (1019 –1054 ) was at times the highest prosperity of the state. Public relations were regulated by a collection of laws " Russian truth"And princely charters. Yaroslav the Wise pursued an active foreign policy. He intermarried with many ruling dynasties Europe, which testified to the wide international recognition of Russia in the European Christian world. Intensive stone construction is underway. When after 12 years of isolation and death prince, who did not leave an heir, returned under the rule of Yaroslav Chernigov principality, Yaroslav moved from Novgorod to Kiev and defeated the Pechenegs, after which their raids on Russia stopped ( 1036 ).

Changes in government at the end of X - beginning of XII centuries.

Golden Gate v Kiev

During baptism of Rus Orthodox power was established in all its lands bishops subordinate to the Kiev metropolitan... At the same time, all lands were planted governors sons Vladimir... That's it princes who acted as appanages of the Kiev grand duke, were only of a kind Rurikovich... Scandinavian sagas mention about indolent possessions Vikings, but they were located on the outskirts of Russia and on the newly annexed lands, therefore at the time of writing “ Tales of Bygone Years"They already seemed to be a relic. Princes-Rurikovich waged a fierce struggle with the remaining tribal princes (Vladimir Monomakh mentions the prince Vyatichi Hodotu and his son). This contributed to the centralization of power.

The power of the Grand Duke reached its highest strengthening during Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise(then after a break at Vladimir Monomakh). Position dynasties strengthened by numerous international dynastic marriages: Anna Yaroslavna and the French king Vsevolod Yaroslavich and Byzantine princesses, etc.

Since Vladimir or, according to some information, Yaropolk Svyatoslavich, instead of a monetary salary, the prince began to give land to the vigilantes. If originally it was cities v feeding then in XI century vigilantes began to receive villages... Together with the villages that became fiefdoms, bestowed upon and boyar title. Boyars began to make senior squad... The service of the boyars was conditioned by personal loyalty to the prince, and not by the size of the land allotment ( conditional land tenure did not receive noticeable distribution). The youngest squad("Youths", "children", "greedy"), who was with the prince, lived at the expense of feeding from the prince's villages and the war. The main fighting force in the XI century was militia, who received horses and weapons from the prince during the war. From services salaried Varangian the squads mostly abandoned during the reign Yaroslav the Wise.

Reasons and prerequisites for the formation of the state.
Signs of the Old Russian state.
Signs of a feudal mode of production. Types of rent.
Forms of feudal land tenure.
Stages of development of feudalism in Russia.
The social structure of the Old Russian state.
Popular uprisings.
Cities. Functions of the city.
Norman theory. Normanists. Anti-Normanists.

Activities of the ancient Russian princes:

Directions of the foreign policy of the Kiev princes.
Rurik. Oleg. Igor. Olga. Svyatoslav.
Vladimir. First religious reform.
Adoption of Christianity. Reasons for the adoption of Christianity.
The meaning of the adoption of Christianity. Church structure.

Yaroslav the Wise. Foreign policy... Interdynastic marriages. "Russian Truth":

Triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs. Strife.
Vladimir Monomakh. The fight against the Polovtsy in 1092-1096
Strife 1093-1097 Lyubech princely congress.
The fight against the Polovtsy in 1103-1111
Board of Vladimir Monomakh in Kiev.
Mstislav the Great.

The Eastern Slavs had a long process of state formation - from the 6th to the 9th century.

Reasons and prerequisites for the formation of the state:

1) the transition from the clan to the neighboring community;

2) the development of private property, property inequality;

3) strengthening of the power of the prince, the growth of the military squad nobility. War booty is concentrated in the hands of princes and nobility;

4) the development of agriculture with the use of iron tools;

5) the growth of cities, the separation of handicrafts from agriculture.

As a result, the Eastern Slavs by the IX century. arises state- a special organization of the political power of society, which has a special apparatus of coercion and control; a way of regulating relations between different social strata, classes, etc. The state appears when people feel an urgent need for it.

The very term "state" (as well as the idea of it) appears only in the 16th century. The ancient Russian state did not exist in the modern sense of the word: there was no single legal, economic and cultural space. But there was the basis of the state - a group of people who claimed the monopoly right to issue laws, and the monopoly use of force if these laws are violated (prince, druzhina nobility and veche).

Signs of the Old Russian state:

1) the presence of public authority;

2) state sovereignty;

3) state power was exercised in a certain territory and extended to the entire population of this territory;

4) a unified system of management, collection of taxes and laws.

The formation of the state is a natural result of the decomposition of the primitive system and the emergence feudalism - a socio-economic system based on private ownership of land and exploitation of dependent peasants by feudal lords.

Signs of a feudal mode of production:

1) natural economy- under him, the products of labor are produced for consumption by the producers themselves, and not for sale;

2) the dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord;

3) the primitive level of development of tools of labor;

4) a combination of feudal land tenure and peasant land-use - the land belongs to the feudal lords, for the use of it, the peasants give part of the harvest to the feudal lord in the form annuities - income that does not require the cost of its own labor from its recipient.

Rent types:

From-working, i.e. corvee;

- rent product (natural);

- rent monetary.

Tribute was called polyudye(from the words "walk over people", ie, dependent population). People were going through detour the prince and the squad of the subject lands from November to April. Polyudye also carried out the power functions of the prince: he communicated with the population, "reminded" of his leadership, administered the court.

Forms of feudal land tenure:

1) votchina(from the word "votchina") - hereditary land property of the votchina, it could be sold, bought, bequeathed. The owners of the estates were princes, boyars, church;

2) estate- conditional land ownership, given by the prince to a petty feudal lord for service, service people did not have the rights of patrimonials.

Stages of development of feudalism in Russia:

1. VI-VIII centuries. - decomposition of the primitive system;

2. IX-XI centuries. - early feudal society;

3. XII-XV centuries. - feudal fragmentation;

4. XVI-first half. XVIII century - late feudalism;

5. Second floor. XVIII-ser. XIX century. - crisis and decomposition of feudalism.

Earlier in historical science, the prevailing opinion was that Ancient Rus was early feudal the state. Now historians believe that the social system of Russia was multi-stacked combining signs of patriarchal, slave-owning and early non-feudal societies.

The social structure of the Old Russian state.

Privileged categories of the population :

- Prince("Knez" is an ancient non-Germanic term - the head of the clan, the elder) - the head of state, military leader, supreme judge and legislator. The prince traveled around the subordinate territories, conducted the court, imposed fines. The trial was over Russian law- the oral code of laws mentioned in the treaties between Russia and Byzantium. The princely entourage performed the functions management and coercion:

- Boyar Duma- advice to the prince;

- voivode- the head of the squad. Druzhina- (from the word "friend") - a professional army, an armed force, personally devoted to the prince. The squad consisted of 500-800 soldiers, divided into old, who participated in the management of the principality ( "Princely men", druzhina nobility, boyars) and "Young" ("youths", "greedy");

- thousand-cue- the head of the military militia (" thousand»). Militia- combat-ready part of the civilian male population participating in hostilities in case of emergency;

- tiyny (tivy), fire-dwellers("Fire" - house, hearth), courtyard, housekeepers - rulers of the princely or boyar economy (court);

- swordsmen- bailiffs;

- danny- tribute collectors;

- Virniki- judicial officials, collectors of fines (fine - vira);

- mytniks- collectors of trade duties.

Local administration was carried out by the princely governors in cities and parishes in rural areas (in volosts).

- smérdy - communal peasants. They were divided into free and personally dependent. Dependent smerds named themselves differently depending on the reason for falling into bondage: zakupy, ryadovichi, freedmen, slaves.

- purchases- smerds who work off the debt taken from him to the feudal lord ( kypu);

- rya-duvichi- dependent people who have entered into an agreement ( row) with the feudal lord and performing various services in his economy;

- hirelings- dependent people who are hired to work for a fee;

- meadowsweet- prisoners working off their ransom for freedom;

- let go - prisoner-of-war slaves set free;

- outcasts- people who have lost contact with the community (possibly expelled);

- forgiven - criminals (thieves) whom the church ransomed from the state, paying a fine for them. They worked on church lands;

- slaves(singular - chelya-din), or slaves... In Russia there was patriarchal(homemade)slavery. Sources of slaves are captivity or debt. Slavery did not become widespread among the Slavs, since the climate did not allow for large harvests and it was difficult to feed the slaves.

There was no need to build irrigation systems and other giant structures typical for southern civilizations... Serfs were deprived of rights. A slave who struck a free person, the offended had the right to kill. For the murder of a slave, the master did not answer before the court, but was subjected only to church repentance. There were two types of servitude: white(full) and incomplete.

The transformation of the former free communes into a dependent peasantry occurred as a result of the seizure of communal lands by the feudal lords, and this process was not always violent, the peasants could voluntarily pass under the rule of the feudal lord, who in return had to protect them from attacks.

Popular uprisings... The plight of the population caused popular uprisings. In Suzdal in 1024 g., as well as in Rostov and Beloozero in 1071, the uprisings were led by pagan priests - Magi... The cause of the uprisings, according to the chronicle, was hunger ("and the gladness was fast in the city of Suzhdal"). V 1068 d. a major uprising broke out in Kiev.

Cities. In the VII-VIII centuries. craft from de-li-moose from agriculture. Craftsmen lived in fortified settlements - settlements growing into the city. Cities were built at the confluence of rivers, on the site of tribal centers, on trade routes. City center - Kremlin (detinets) was surrounded by a fortified wall and rampart. To the center of prima-kali posad and slobody- settlements of artisans. The le-topis mentions 224 Russian cities, archaeologists have recorded 425 settlements of the 9th-12th centuries, of which 42 are large. Foreigners called Russia Gardarika- a country of cities.

City functions: defensive, trade, handicraft center, as well as the administrative center - the residence of the prince.

There were two centers for the formation of statehood: the southern one on the Dnieper (Kiev), and the north-western one (Ladoga and Novgorod). Legendary brothers Kiy, Chek, Horeb and their sisters - Lybid are considered the founders of Kiev (V-VI centuries). According to the calculations of demographers, by the XI century. on the territory of the Old Russian state with an area of 1.1 million square meters. km. inhabited by up to 10 million people (according to B.U. Urlanis - 4.5 million people).

Conventionally, the beginning of Russian statehood is determined 860 when, after the first campaign of the Rus against the city of Constantinople, Byzantium officially recognized the East Slavic state in the treaty.

Thus, by the IX century. the Old Russian state was formed. The emergence of the state contributed to the integration of tribes, socio-political stability, protection from external threats.

Norman theory. PVL connects the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs with the vocation of the Varangians. In the record under 862 the story is given that the Slovene, Krivichi and the Finno-Ugric tribe Chud, trying to overcome strife, called for the reign of the Varangians from across the sea: “Our land is great and abundant, and . control, order) in it. Come to reign and rule over us. " Three Varangian leaders: brothers Ryu-rik , Truvor and Sineus began to reign, respectively, in the city of Novgo-rod, Iz-borsk, Belozer. Druzhin-nicki of Rurik Askold and Deer they decided to go "to the Greeks" (to Vizantia), but settled in Kiev.

The creators of the Norman theory (NT) - German scientists Gottlieb Bayer(1694-1738), Gerhard Miller(1705-1783) and August Schlözer(1735-1809), who worked in the 18th century. in the Petersburg Academy of Sciences. They believed that the state in Russia was brought in from the outside, it was founded by the Normans-Varangians - Scandinavians belonging to the Germanic language group. The Slavs themselves were allegedly so backward that they could not independently create their own state. These conclusions were later used by Hitler's propaganda, which proclaimed the Slavs as a racially incompletely valuable people.

Normanists. Modern Normanists believe that:

1. Rurik is a real historical personality. In Sweden, despite the presence of a monument konungu(to the prince) Rurik in Norkoping, there is little information about him. Perhaps it was the king Rorik of Jutland from Denmark.

2. The first Russian princes were also Varangians - Oleg, Igor, Olga... Their names were originally Scandinavian ( Helg, Ingvar, Helga).

3. The Normans played a significant role in the formation of the ancient Russian statehood, and Russia in its type was no different from similar Western European kingdoms (R. Skrynnikov). The Varangian factor in the formation of Rus was significant. For example, in a settlement Gnezdovo near the city of Smolensk is the largest Scandinavian necropolis in Eastern Europe.

4. “Russia is the same Normans, the same Scandinavians; Russia is the oldest layer of the Varangians, the first immigrants from Scandinavia ”(AA Shakhmatov). Historian S.F. Platonov believes that at first the Varangian squads were called Rus, and then this name was assigned to the Slavs.

5. Swedish historians believe that there was a so-called. "Great Sweden", which included the vast lands of Russia up to the Black Sea.

Anti-Normanists- representatives Slavic school Mikhail Lomonosov(1711-1765), Dmitry Ilovaysky(1832-1920) argued:

1. "Rus" is the Slavs. There were no Varangians in Russia at all, or they did not play any role in the formation of the Old Russian state.

2. Rurik "was an employee for hire," who was instructed by the Novgorodians for a salary to maintain order. The Slavs called on the Normans as a neutral force capable of stopping the Uso-Bits. The Varangians were not associated with any of the local groupings and therefore eliminated everyone. For many peoples in ancient times, foreigners became the heads of states (historian V.L. Yanin).

3. If the Varangians were summoned to reign, it means that this form of power among the Slavs already existed earlier. Rurik was not the first prince of the Slavic lands. Known earlier (possibly fictional) princes Kiy, Bravlin, Gostomysl.

4. Analysis of PVL shows that the record of the call-up of Rurik was a late insertion into the text of the chronicle. Nestor's notes in 1116 were revised, possibly at the direction of Prince Vlady-mir Monomakh by the chronicler Sylvester(1123). In the "Po-Vesti" Nestor's assertion that Russia took shape in the 6th century remained. around Kiev and the first prince was Cue, but a record of the vocation of the Varangians was added, which met the political interests of Monomakh, who was closely associated with Scandinavia. Brothers Sineus and Truvor are the fruit of the chronicler's mistake, who, not knowing the ancient Swedish language, mistook Rurik's entourage for the names: sine hus ("his kind") - Sineus and thru varing ("faithful squad") - Truvor.

5. The origin of the ruling dynasty cannot be directly linked to the origin of the state itself. Statehood cannot be exported from abroad, it is the result of reaching a certain level of development of society, and the Varangians had a state in the 9th century. hasn't worked out yet.