Modern history (1500–1800). 7th grade
1487- expedition of the Portuguese Bartolomeu Dias. In search of a sea route to India, Europeans first circumnavigated Africa from the south.
1492– the last Christian takeover of the Emirate of Granada Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula). End of the Reconquista.
1492- Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. American lands entered the sphere of geographical ideas; there was a revision of the medieval worldview; the creation of colonial empires, the mass extermination of the indigenous population and the death of the civilizations of the peoples of America began.
1498- Vasco da Gama's expedition reached India, pioneering the sea route from Europe to the countries of South Asia.
1509–1547- reign of the English king Henry VIII. Carrying out the Reformation. Secularization of monastic lands, increasing ruin of the peasants. A publication for the fight against vagrants and beggars of the “Bloody Legislation”.
1517– in Martin Luther’s speech with the “95 Theses”, the denial of basic dogmas catholic church, proclamation of the thesis of “justification by faith alone” and the authority of Holy Scripture, the idea of independence of the secular state from the Catholic Church). The beginning of the Reformation in Germany.
1519–1521- first trip around the world Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan.
1519–1556- the reign of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, from 1516 - the Spanish king (Carlos I).
Under the banner of Catholicism, he tried to implement a plan to create a “world Christian power.” He fought wars with France and the Ottoman Empire. He was defeated in the fight against the German Protestant princes. After the conclusion of the Augsburg religious peace with them in 1555, he abdicated the throne. 1520–1566- reign of the Turkish Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent. The period of the highest political power of the Ottoman Empire. Conquest of part of the Hungarian Kingdom, Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Arabia, the territory of Tripoli and Algeria.
1524–1526- Peasant War in Germany. Suppressed by troops.
1526- Founding of the Mughal Empire in India.
1534- Beginning of the Reformation in England. In response to the pope’s refusal to allow the divorce of King Henry VIII from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, the English parliament freed the Church of England from subordination to Rome and, by the “Act of Supremacy,” proclaimed the king the head of the church.
1534- Founding of the Catholic monastic order “Society of Jesus” by Ignatius of Loyola.
1555– The religious peace of Augsburg between the German Protestant princes and Emperor Charles V. Ended the wars between Catholics and Protestants. He established the right of princes to determine the religion of their subjects according to the principle “whose country is their faith,” and recognized Lutheranism as the official religion (along with Catholicism). Contributed to strengthening the power of the princes.
1556–1598- reign of the Spanish king Philip II. Contributed to the strengthening of Spanish absolutism. Increased oppression in the Netherlands. He supported the Inquisition. Waged wars with England and France. Annexed Portugal to Spain in 1581.
1558–1603- reign of the English Queen Elizabeth I Tudor. The strengthening of absolutism, the restoration of the Anglican Church.
1562–1598- religious wars in France between Catholics and Huguenots. With the actual accession of Henry IV to the French throne in 1594, hostilities largely ended. The Edict of Nantes (1598) ended the religious wars.
1569- conclusion of the Union of Lublin. The unification of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
1572, August 24– St. Bartholomew's Night: massacre of Huguenots by Catholics in Paris, organized by Catherine de' Medici and Guise.
1 566-1609 – Dutch bourgeois revolution. It combined the anti-feudal struggle with the national liberation war against Spain, whose dominance hampered the development of capitalist relations in the country. It took place under the banner of Calvinism. Milestones: popular Iconoclastic uprising of 1566, general uprising of 1572 in the northern provinces, uprising of 1576 in the southern provinces, creation of the Union of Utrecht (1579).
The revolution ended with the liberation of the northern provinces from Spanish rule (the territory of the modern state of the Netherlands) and the formation of the bourgeois Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands southern provinces 1585 reconquered by Spain). The bourgeoisie, merchants and new nobles came to power in the Dutch Republic, and obstacles to the development of capitalism disappeared. Calvinism became the state religion.
1579- Union of Utrecht. Formed a union of the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands to fight against Spain and internal feudal-Catholic reaction. Laid the foundations of the Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands.
1588– formation of the Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Existed until 1795
1588- the death of the “Invincible Armada”, the fleet was caught in a storm, some of the ships crashed on the rocks, others were destroyed by the English fleet under the command of Admiral Francis Drake. The death of the Armada undermined the military-political power of Spain. England is turning into the “mistress of the seas.”
1589- end of the Valois dynasty in France. Beginning of the Bourbon dynasty.
1589–1610- the reign of the French king Henry IV (actually from 1594), the first of the Bourbon dynasty. From 1562 King of Navarre Henry of Navarre). During the religious wars, the head of the Huguenots. After converting (1593) to Catholicism, Paris 1594) recognized him as king. Issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598. His policies contributed to the strengthening of absolutism. Killed by a Catholic fanatic.
1598- publication by the French king Henry IV of the Edict of Nantes: Catholicism remained the dominant religion, the Huguenots were granted freedom of religion and worship in cities except Paris and some others); they received certain political rights. The edict was partially revoked in 1629 and completely revoked by Louis XIV in 1685.
1600– accusation of heresy and burning in Rome by the Inquisition of Giordano Bruno, an Italian philosopher, astronomer and poet. He defended the concept of the infinity of the Universe and the countless number of worlds.
1600- founding of the English East India Company, an organization for the management and exploitation of English possessions in India.
1603–1867- reign of the Tokugawa shogun dynasty in Japan.
1603- end of the Tudor dynasty in England. Beginning of the Stuart dynasty.
1607- founding of the first permanent English settlement in Virginia (North America).
1609- recognition of Dutch independence by Spain.
1618–1648– Thirty Years' War (pan-European) between the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Catholic princes of Germany, supported by the papacy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the anti-Habsburg coalition (German Protestant princes, France, Sweden, Denmark, supported by England, Holland and Russia). War periods: Czech (1618–1623), Danish (1625–1629), Swedish (163 -1635), Franco-Swedish (1635–1648). It ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The reactionary plans of the Habsburgs to create a “world empire” collapsed, and political hegemony passed to France.
1624–1642- reign of the first minister of the King of France, Cardinal Richelieu. He strengthened absolutism, deprived the Huguenots of political rights, and preserved their freedom of religion. He supported the German Protestant princes, Holland, Denmark, Sweden (enemies of the Habsburgs). In 1635 he involved France in the Thirty Years' War.
30s XV II century - “closing” Japan (prohibiting the Japanese from leaving their country under threat of death and from building large ships suitable for long-distance voyages, and foreigners from visiting Japan). Caused by the desire of the authorities to prevent the invasion of Japan by Europeans and the desire to preserve the old traditions and feudal orders intact. 1640–1660- English bourgeois revolution.
1640- convening of the Long Parliament by the English King Charles I. Carrying out reforms (destruction of royal courts that persecuted dissidents, securing the right of parliament to set taxes, adoption of a law on the dissolution of the House of Commons only with its consent, etc.). The beginning of the English bourgeois revolution.
1645, June- Battle of Naseby: defeat of the army of Charles I by the parliamentary army. Flight of the king (1646) to Scotland, his extradition to parliament.
1642–1646- the first civil war in England between supporters of the Long Parliament and royalists.
1643–1715- the reign of the French king Louis XIV (“the sun king”). The apogee of French absolutism.
1644- establishment of the dominance of the Manchus in China, ruled until 1911).
1648- Peace of Westphalia. ended the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648. Lay the foundations for new relations between states in Europe; established the principle of generally recognized borders of states; proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in Germany.
1648- the second civil war in England between supporters of the Long Parliament and royalists.
1649–1652- conquest of Ireland by the English army.
1652–1654- Anglo-Dutch War. Started by Holland in response to the adoption of the “Navigation Act”. The Treaty of Westminster ended with the recognition of the “Navigation Act”).
1651- the publication of the “Navigation Act” allowed the import of foreign goods into England only on English ships or ships of those countries that produced the imported goods).
1652–1654- Anglo-Dutch War. Started by Holland in response to the adoption of the “Navigation Act”. 3 ended with the Treaty of Westminster recognizing the “Navigation Act”).
1653–1658- Cromwell’s protectorate (military dictatorship) in England: divided the country into 11 military districts led by lieutenant generals, suppressed the movements of equalizers, diggers, and royalist uprisings, confirmed the laws of the Long Parliament, banned the Anglican Church, expanded colonial expansion.
1660- restoration of the Stuart dynasty. Proclamation of Charles II as King. The end of the revolution in England.
1688- "Glorious Revolution" in England. The removal of Jacob II Stuart from the throne, the transfer of royal power to the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange. Publication of the “Bill of Rights” (enshrined the supremacy of parliament in the field of legislation). Establishment of a parliamentary monarchy in England.
1700–1721– Northern War (for the course of the war, see the history of Russia).
1701–1714- the war for the Spanish succession of the Franco-Spanish coalition with a coalition of England, Austria (Holy Roman Emperor), Holland, Portugal, Prussia and a number of small states of Germany and Italy. Ended with the signing of the Utrecht Treaty (1713) and Rastattsky (1714) peace treaties. Strengthening English maritime and colonial power.
1707– “Act of Union” between England and Scotland. Creation of Great Britain.
1739- capture of Delhi by the troops of the Iranian Shah Nadir.
1751– publication in France of the Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts.
1756–1763– The Seven Years' War between Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden and Prussia, Great Britain (in union with Hanover) and Portugal. Caused by the intensification of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies and the clash of Prussia’s aggressive policies with the interests of Austria, France and Russia. According to the Treaty of Huber-Tusburg in 1763 with Austria and Saxony, Prussia secured Silesia. According to the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Canada, East Louisiana, and most of the French possessions in India passed to Great Britain from France. 1757- victory of the English East India Company over the Bengal army at the Battle of Plassey. Capture of Bengal. The beginning of the colonial conquest of India by Great Britain.
1757– “closure” of China (closing of all ports except Guangzhou for foreign trade). Caused by the desire to preserve the traditional foundations of society and protect the country from the colonialist policies of Western countries.
1765- creation of the mechanical spinning wheel “Jenny” by English weaver James Hargreaves. The beginning of the industrial revolution.
1773- "Boston Tea Party". The destruction of a large shipment of tea by the colonists, the closure of the Boston port, the prohibition of meetings of citizens and the quartering of English soldiers in the city. Exacerbation of the conflict between the metropolis and the colonies.
1775–1783- War of Independence of the 13 British colonies in North America (North American bourgeois revolution). Ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles 1783 British recognition of the independence and sovereignty of the United States).
1776, July 4– adoption of the Declaration of Independence of the United States by the Continental Congress. Proclaimed the separation of the colonies from the mother country and the formation of an independent state - the USA. July 4 is celebrated annually in the USA as Independence Day).
1784- James Watt's creation of the steam engine. It played a huge role in the transition to machine production, accelerated the development of old industries (such as textiles) and caused the emergence of new ones.
1787– adoption of the US Constitution – consolidated the republican system, turned the United States into a federation of states), provided for the separation of judicial, legislative and executive powers; at the head of the executive - the president, George Washington was elected as the first president), the highest legislative body is the US Congress. The Constitution, as amended, is still in force.
70-80s XVIII century- the beginning of the industrial revolution in England.
1789–1799- The French Revolution.
1789, August– the adoption by the Constituent Assembly of France of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, the proclamation of the sovereignty of the nation, the rule of law and inalienable human rights: freedom of personality, speech, conscience, equality of citizens before the law, the right to resist oppression, inviolability of private property).
1791 September- adoption by the Constituent Assembly of the first Constitution in the history of France, which limited the power of the king.
1792- overthrow of the monarchy in France. Proclamation of the Republic (First Republic).
1793- execution of the French king Louis XVII.
1793, June 2 – 1794, July 27- the period of the Jacobin dictatorship in France. Established as a result of a popular uprising on May 31 - June 2, 1793. All legislative and executive power is concentrated in the Convention and its committees.
A “suspicious” decree was adopted, prohibiting workers’ organizations, unions and strikes. Revolutionary terror has been established. Overthrown as a result of the Thermidorian coup on July 27 (9 Thermidor of the 2nd year of the Republic according to the revolutionary calendar).
1794- Thermidorian coup in France. The abolition of maximum prices, the beginning of counter-revolutionary terror.
1795–1799– board of the Directory (a board of 5 directors) in the First French Republic. She expressed the interests of the big bourgeoisie and pursued an aggressive foreign policy. Overthrown by the coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799)
1796–1797- Italian campaign of General Napoleon Bonaparte. Ended with the signing of the Peace of Campoformia (Austria ceded the territory of the Austrian Netherlands to France and recognized the formation of the Cisalpine Republic, which included Lombardy).
1798–1801- the Egyptian campaign of the French expeditionary army of General Napoleon Bonaparte with the goal of conquering Egypt and preparing a base for an attack on British possessions in India. The defeat of the French fleet in August 1798 by Nelson's English squadron at Abukir. Napoleon's flight to France in October 1799. Capitulation of French troops in 18 1.
1799- coup of 18 Brumaire in France. Completion of the Great French Revolution. Creation of a new provisional government led by Napoleon Bonaparte.
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New time (beg.XVIV. – 1918)
Iperiod new history(early 16th – 60s of the 19th centuries)
The period covers the time of formation of an industrial (capitalist) society in Western Europe and North America, giving a person the opportunity for the most complete self-realization. During this period, people invented the motor, car, steamship, steam locomotive, railway, diesel, open-hearth furnace, aviation, telephone, radio, television, electric light. In Asia, traditional (feudal) society continued to dominate. The land was in the hands of the state (monarch), there was no principle of primogeniture (seniority). These factors slowed down the processes of transformation of handicraft industries into factories, consolidation of farms, concentration of capital in one hand, and, consequently, the development of capitalism.
Historical sources of the period: F. de Monluze “On the French Monarchy”, F. Mile “History of the French Revolution”,
A. de Lomartin “History of the Girondins”, Iselli “On the History of Humanity”, F. Schiller “History of the Thirty Years’ War”,
J. Meslier “History of Louis XVI”, Voltaire “History of Russia during the period of Peter the Great”, G. Gallom “History of England from Henry VII to George II (1485-1760)”, G. Leo “History of the Italian states”, N.M. . Karamzin “History of the Russian State”, J. Bancroft “History of the United States”.
Istage– XVI-XVIIIbb.
During this period, the prerequisites for the emergence of capitalism were formed. Bourgeois revolutions took place in Western Europe and North America.
Reasons for the great geographical discoveries: 1) the development of commodity production required additional markets for raw materials;
2) the need for additional funds and the thirst for enrichment; 3) the control of the Ottoman Empire over international trade routes (Silk and through the Mediterranean Sea) forced them to look for new routes to Asia.
The initiators of great geographical discoveries were the Portuguese and Spaniards.
The Portuguese in the 20-30s of the 15th century. discovered Madeira, Canary and Azores islands, Guinea, islands Cape Verde, Sierra Leone.
Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) in 1468 circled the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) and entered the Indian Ocean, but did not reach India.
Christopher Columbus (Spain) 10/12/1492 landed on the island of San Salvador, discovered Haiti and Cuba. He believed that he had sailed to India and discovered America; the first viceroy of the captured lands Vasco da Gama in 1498. opened the sea route to India through Atlantic Ocean.
Amerigo Vespucci, as part of a Portuguese expedition (1499-1501), explored the shores of Brazil and came to the conclusion that open lands- not India. He called them the New World.
P. Toscanelli in the 15th century. compiled a map of the world, but made a mistake in determining the length of the equator by 12 thousand km. Scientists subsequently called this mistake “a great mistake that led to a great discovery.”
In 1507 M. Waldseemüller proposed to name the new continent America in honor of Vespucci.
In 1515 The first globe was created in Germany, on which New World was named America. Since 1569 the name appeared on the maps.
In 1519 Nunez Balloba founded Panama, the first city on the American continent.
Ferdinand Magellan in 1519-22. traveled around the world, proving that the Earth is round. Died on Philippine Islands.
In 1605 Spaniard Luis Vaez de Torres discovered Australia.
Portugal: Sunda and Moluccas Islands in Asia, Brazil (discovered by Cabral in 1500):
Spain: 1510 – Cuba, 1529 – Philippines; Cortez conquered the Mayans (Mexico) before 1679, in the 20-40s of the 16th century. Colombia was conquered
Ecuador, Peru (Inca; Pissaro), Bolivia, later Chile and Argentina. 1510–mid. XVII century - politics of conquest (conquest).
1512 - a law prohibiting the turning of Indians into slaves. For governance, 2 viceroyalties were established:
New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and islands Caribbean Sea) and Peru (all of South America except Brazil).
England: in the 16th century. – Ireland and Scotland, in North America – Virginia (1607). 1600 - Founding of the East India Company.
France: - XVII century - Canada
Holland - 1652 Cape Colony in South Africa
The consequences of the great geographical discoveries: 1) world trade arose: 2) cocoa, tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes, corn were brought to Europe from America, tea, coffee, oranges were brought from Asia; 3) Genoa and Venice lost their importance as centers of trade; world trade was concentrated in the ports of the Netherlands (the world center is Antwerp), England, Portugal (Lisbon) and Spain (Seville).
Socio-economic changes in Western Europe:
The emergence of new nobles - feudal lords who use hired labor and are engaged in trade and entrepreneurship;
K ser. XVII century merchants-negotiators and bankers began to represent the highest stratum of society;
From the 17th century the construction of covered markets (the first in London and Paris); daily markets;
Appearance trading companies;
The emergence of manufacture - production based on the division of manual labor;
Improvement of production technology (blast furnace, water engine, watches);
Improvement of military affairs (mortars (XVI century), muskets (XVII), pistols, grenades, explosive shells, rifle butts)
Loss of the meaning of chivalry as a standard of courage.
Reformation of the Catholic Church - the emergence of Protestantism (officially since 1555 (1517))
In the Czech Republic - Jan Hus. Hussite wars 1419-34. (Jan Zizka)
In Germany - in 1517. Martin Luther put forward the appeal “95 Theses”, condemning indulgences, submission to the Rissky Pope, and the enrichment of churches. Peasants' support for him resulted in the Peasants' War of 1524-26. against serfdom, but not for the elimination of feudal orders, but for personal freedom (Thomas Münzer);
1526 – The German Reichstag passed a law on the right of princes to choose their religion. In 1529 the law was repealed, the “Protestation” was signed by 5 princes and a number of cities.
Since 1555 The princes received the right from the Pope to choose the Lutheran religion.
In Switzerland - John Calvin; Geneva is Protestant Rome.
Calvinism. In England, Henry VIII separated the church from Rome (the Anglican Church). In Denmark and Sweden, the reformation was carried out by kings with the support of nobles.
In France there are Huguenots. To fight the Protestants in 1540. the Jesuit order (“Society of Jesus”) was created; founder - Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola.
Renaissance (Renaissance).
Origins of the Renaissance: ancient ( Ancient Greece and Rome) art and scientific thought Central Asia. The Renaissance originated in Italy.
Literature: Shakespeare (“Hamlet”, “Othello”, “Romeo and Juliet”), Miguel de Cervantes (“Don Quixote”), Lope de Vega (1562-1635)
Humanist writers: Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) – “Book of Songs”, “Letters in Verse”
Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406)
Thomas More (1478-1535) - “The Golden Book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia”; "utopia" - a non-existent place
Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) – “Gargantua and Pantagruel”
art: Leonardo da Vinci - artist, poet, architect, sculptor, musician, engineer-inventor; called painting “the princess of the arts” (“Madonna and Child”, wall painting “The Last Vespers”);
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) "Sistine Madonna"
Michelangelo Buonarroti – sculptor, painter, architect, military engineer, poet (“David”); from 1546 he led the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral and the Capitol in Rome
Albrecht Durer (German) - artist, engineer, architect, expert on ancient languages, poet (engravings, portraits)
Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch) – portrait, landscape, still life (“Return of the Prodigal Son”)
Diego Velazquez (Spanish) – “Painter of Truth” (“Spinners”)
El Greco (Spanish) – “The Holy Family”, “Portrait of an Unknown”
Science: N. Copernicus (1473-43) proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun and its axis ( heliocentric system) in the book “On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres” (1543); in 1616 the Inquisition banned the teachings of Copernicus
D. Bruno (1548-1600) in his work “The Philosophy of Cry” put forward a theory about the infinity of the world; burned at the stake by the Inquisition; on the grave it is written: “He demanded freedom of thought for all peoples, and was executed for this demand” (“He raised his voice for freedom of thought for all peoples and went to his death for this freedom”)
G. Galileo (1564-1642) built the first telescope, discovered mountains on the Moon, satellites of Jupiter, spots on the Sun and phases of Venus; under torture of the Inquisition he was forced to renounce his views; rehabilitated today time of John Paul II.
John Locke developed the doctrine of the rights of man to life, liberty and property; created the doctrine of the division of state power into legislative and executive.
Inventions: windmill, lathe, pump, use coal, explosion method in ore mining, with ser. XVI century typography.
Netherlands
State on the territory of modern. Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland and parts of France; consisted of 17 provinces; center – Antwerp; depending on Spain. "Lowlands"
1566 - the uprising against Spanish rule coincided with the struggle for church reform (Protestantism); attempt to suppress the uprising by the Spanish Duke of Alba "guez" ("ragamuffins") - partisans.
1572 - proclamation of William of Orange as ruler of the northern territories (the south remained with Spain).
1573 – Alba left the Netherlands; only the south of the country remained with Spain.
1579 – creation of the “Union of Utrecht” (unification of 7 provinces) to fight the Spaniards; Dutch Republic.
1609 - recognition by Spain of the independence of the Dutch Republic; capital - Amsterdam; the first bourgeois state.
1652 - Cape Colony in South Africa.
England
XVI century for England this is the reformation, the strengthening of absolutism and the establishment of dominance at sea.
Henry VIII (Tudor) subordinated the entire country to a single center - London (absolutist monarchy), reformed the church - proclaimed himself the head of the church and confiscated 2/3 of church lands.
His daughter Maria (1553-58) tried to carry out a counter-reformation (returning the country to Catholicism).
1554 - restoration of the power of the Pope in England.
Mary's repressive policy brought Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to the throne. Her main task was to strengthen the unity of England and the struggle for supremacy at sea. In 1588 The English fleet defeated the "Invincible Armada" of Spain.
With the death of Elizabeth, the Tudor dynasty ended. James VI - Stuart.
1600 - opening of the first stock exchange.
1628 - Parliament got the king to sign the “Bill of Rights” and the “Petition of Rights”, prohibiting the introduction of new taxes and imprisonment without trial; dispersal of parliament - establishment of the absolute power of the king.
3.11.1640 – convening of parliament – the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution; dissolution of extraordinary courts and the “Privy Council” of the king, restriction of the ecclesiastical court, release of political prisoners.
1641 – “The Great Remonstrance” - a list of the king’s abuses and the political demands of parliament.
1642 – civil war between supporters of the monarchy and the bourgeoisie.
1643 - the conclusion of an alliance between the English Parliament and Scotland.
07/14/1645 – Battle of Naseby (defeat of the king’s troops).
1649 – abolition of royal power (execution of Charles I); 05/19/1649 proclamation of the republic; unicameral parliament; head of the executive branch (Council of State) - Oliver Cromwell; conquest of Scotland and Ireland.
1653 - dispersal of parliament; Cromwell - Lord Protector (dictator).
1660 - restoration of the monarchy (Charles II).
1685 – King James II tried to restore Catholicism.
1688 – palace coup “Glorious Revolution” by William of Orange (Holland) – overthrow of James II, adoption of the “Declaration of Rights”, England – limited monarchy.
1701-14 - war with France for the Spanish throne; capture of Gibraltar.
1707 - Union of England and Scotland - Great Britain.
since 1716 – Parliamentary term of office is 6 years.
XVIII century – “the second hundred years war” - the confrontation between England and France.
XVIII century - industrial revolution - the transition from manual labor to machine labor.
1733 – John Kay invented the flying shuttle.
1765 – James Hargreaves invented the periodic spinning jenny; D. Wyatt - steam engine.
1767 E. Cartwright invented the mechanical loom. Abraham Derby invented new methods of casting iron, Abraham Derby, his son, introduced blast furnace smelting with coke, Abraham Derby, his grandson, introduced coke blast furnace in 1779. built a bridge from cast iron parts.
1774 D. Wilkinson invented the lathe.
1788 – the first cast iron pipes.
1814 – steam locomotive D. Stephenson.
The “Luddites” were a labor movement that destroyed machine tools and saw them as the cause of their troubles.
France
II half.XVI century. - “Revolt of the crokans” (“rodents”) – 40 thousand peasants opposed the arbitrariness of tax farmers and officials.
The Estates General (parliament) did not play the same role in France as in England. From 1614 throughout the 17th century they were not convened. There were 17 regional parliaments overseeing the courts. The Parisian Parliament had great influence; it controlled 1/3 of the country and could appoint a regent if the heir was a minor.
In France, Protestantism (Huguenots) spread in the south, while the north (the king) remained Catholic. The massacre of the Huguenots, organized by a supporter of the king, the Duke of Guise, became the cause of the War of Religion (1562-98 - 32 years).
08/24/1572 – “Bartholomew’s Night” (mass murder of Huguenots). Prohibition of Protestantism.
1589 - assassination of King Henry III. On the throne is the leader of the Protestants - Henry of Navarre - Henry IV (Bourbon dynasty), who converted to Catholicism. Strengthening personal power.
1598 – Edict of Nantes (state religion – Catholicism, Huguenots have the right to worship; religious truce).
1610-43 - the reign of Louis XIII and Cardinal (First Minister) Richelieu - the establishment of the sole power of the king.
1643-1715 – Louis XIV (“The State is me”) – absolute monarchy; cardinal and first minister Mazarin.
1756-63 – The Seven Years' War between England and France for the Austrian inheritance and colonies; 1763 - ousting France from Canada.
05/04/1789 – convening of the Estates General by Louis XVI to raise taxes.
06/17/1789 Deputies from the 3rd estate established a new parliament - the National (Constituent) Assembly.
07/14/1789 - storming of the Bastille; the king recognized the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly; power in the hands of the Paris Commune; a constitutional monarchy; The French Revolution. Parties: royalists - supporters of the monarchy; Girondins - moderate liberals, supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Jacobins are supporters of the republic.
1789 – adoption of the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights; elimination of feudal relations; confiscation of land from the church.
September 1791 – adoption of the Constitution; aggression of Austria, Spain and Great Britain.
08/10/1792 – uprising in Paris; elections to the new parliament - the National Convention.
09/21/1792 France is a republic.
Rouget de Lisle wrote the "Battle Song of the Army of the Rhine" which is still the anthem of France.
01/21/1793 - execution of the king.
06/2/1793 - as a result of the uprising, power passed from the Girondins to the Jacobins; Committee of Public Safety - Robespierre; establishment of a revolutionary dictatorship.
1793 – adoption of a new Constitution, which consolidated the abolition of feudal relations; Law “On Suspicious Persons”.
1794 - expulsion of interventionists from the country.
07/27/1794 - overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship; execution of Robespierre.
1795 – new Constitution; the Girondins are in power; executive power - Directory (1795-99).
11/19/1799 - coup d'état; power in the hands of 3 consuls led by Napoleon; elimination of all democratic freedoms
Russia
The unification of Russian lands continued under Vasily III (1505-33). Pskov, Smolensk, and the Ryazan principality were annexed.
20-20s XVI century – creation of a single centralized state. Moscow becomes the capital of the Russian state.
Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84) - the first Russian Tsar, crowned by Metropolitan Macarius in 1547.
1547 - The elected Rada is an unofficial government.
1549 - convening of the Zemsky Sobor - the first representative assembly; Russia is an estate-representative monarchy.
1550 - the new Code of Law limited the rights of the boyars and established self-government bodies.
1552 - conquest of the Kazan Khanate.
1556 - conquest of the Astrakhan Khanate.
1582 - conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
1558-83 – The Livonian War – the loss of almost the entire Baltic coast.
1565-72 - oprichnina - a special royal possession on which noblemen loyal to the tsar settled; guardsmen - the tsar’s personal guard, a punitive body against the boyars (Malyuta Skuratov).
1584-98 – reign of Ivan the Terrible’s son Fyodor (the last of the Rurikovichs; the dynasty ruled for 700 years).
1598 – The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov as Tsar.
1605 – death of Godunov; the beginning of the Troubles; False Dmitry I (monk Grigory Otrepiev) at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian army entered Moscow.
1606-10 - Tsar - Boyar Vasily Shuisky.
1608 – False Dmitry II (“Tushino thief”).
1609 - capture of Moscow by Polish troops.
1611-12 - the people's militia led by the townsman Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky; liberation of Moscow.
1613 - The Zemsky Sobor elected a tsar - 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (Romanov dynasty until 1917).
1645-76 - the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.
1649 - The “Conciliar Code” abolished feudal fragmentation, legalized serfdom (abolished the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another), noble lands were turned into patrimony (law of inheritance).
1667-71 – uprising of S. Razin.
In the 17th century manufactories appeared in Russia (the first in ferrous metallurgy), cash dues. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan played a large role in foreign trade; the British and Dutch acted as intermediaries in foreign trade. – The “New Trade Code,” which prohibits foreigners from conducting retail trade in the domestic market, is the beginning of the struggle to transform Russia into a strong maritime power.
1696-1725 - Peter I is on the throne.
1695-96 – unsuccessful Azov campaign; start of ship construction.
1700-21 – Northern War with Sweden for access to Baltic Sea.
05/16/1703 – the beginning of the construction of St. Petersburg, from 1712. - capital of Russia.
1707-09 - Peasant war led by K. Bulavin.
1709 – The Battle of Poltava – the defeat of the Swedish army.
1714 - Battle of Gangut - defeat of the Swedish fleet; expedition to the Khiva Khanate.
since 1721 Peter I - Emperor; absolute monarchy.
1721 – end of the Northern War (Peace of Nystad; Finland).
Reforms: recruitment of peasants into the army and their lifelong service; 1708 – division of the state into provinces;
1711 - the Senate was introduced instead of the Boyar Duma; 1715 – Naval Academy; 1718-20 – abolition of orders, introduction of collegiums;
1719 - Kunstkamera (museum); 1721 – subordination of the church to the Synod, the head of the church is not the metropolitan, but the patriarch;
1722 – “Table of Ranks” – military and secular positions; 1725 – St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
1725-27 - Catherine I (Peter’s wife) on the throne with the support of Menshikov; establishment of the Supreme Privy Council, limiting the power of the empress.
1727-30 - reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter II.
1730-40 – reign of Peter I’s niece, Anna Ioanovna; Biron.
1741-61 - reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth.
1761-62 – reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter III; displaced by his wife, Catherine II.
1762-96 – Catherine II; strengthening the privileges of the nobles, strengthening serfdom.
1773-75 - Peasant war led by E. Pugachev.
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I.
Since 1725 By 1800 there were 8 representatives of the Romanov dynasty on the throne.
Foreign policy: 1654 – annexation of parts of Ukraine and Belarus to Russia; con. XVI - XVIII centuries. – development of Siberia (at the end of the 17th century the Russian population of Siberia was 150 thousand people); 1731. – annexation of part of Kazakhstan; 1756-63 - participation in the Seven Years' War with Prussia; 1768-74 – Russian-Turkish war (Russian victory; Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace); 1783 – annexation of Crimea, 1787-91. – Russian-Turkish war (Peace of Yasin), 1788-90. - war with Sweden (Peace of Revel).
The basic principle foreign policy: expansion of borders due to adjacent territories.
In the second half of the 18th century. Signs of capitalism began to appear in Russia.
1763 – banning Europeans from moving to the West.
1765 – organization “Sons of Liberty” against colonial dependence.
1774 - representatives of 13 states gathered in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress - refusal to obey the laws of the mother country.
1775 - War of Independence; convening of the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia - creation of an army (D. Washington).
07/04/1776 – adoption of the “Declaration of Independence” (Thomas Jefferson); US education.
France, Spain and Russia were interested in weakening England, so they provided assistance to the United States.
1782 - end of the war; September 3, 1763 a truce was signed in Paris; England recognized the independence of the United States.
1787 – adoption by the Constituent Convention (parliament: 55 representatives from 13 states) of the US Constitution, which did not abolish slavery; The USA is a presidential republic; Presidential term of office is 4 years; Congress (parliament) consists of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house).
1789 - I President – D. Washington
Germany
Until the 16th century An international trade route passed through Germany, which lost its importance due to the movement of sea trade routes to the Atlantic Ocean. The country ranked first in the world in copper production.
Feudal fragmentation (more than 300 principalities). 1618-48 – The Thirty Years’ War divided Europe into 2 blocs: I – the union of Austria, Spain and the German Catholic principalities.
II - the union of France, Denmark, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities.
Germany is an “empire without subjects”, “an empire without power”. “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation” until 1806.
In the II half. XVI century France, Sweden and Turkey were hostile to Germany.
1663 - for the first time in history, the German principalities created a national liberation army to resist Turkey.
Austria– Habsburg dynasty; capital - Vienna.
Prussia– formed in 1701 on the site of the Principality of Brandenburg; Frederick I; capital - Berlin; at the end of the 18th century. – 3rd country in Europe by territory, 4th – by army size under Frederick II (1740-86) – absolutist monarchy
Asian countries
India
1525-26 – conquest of the Delhi Sultanate (Lodi dynasty) by Babur (in the battle of Panipat, Babur’s 12 thousand army defeated the 100 thousand army of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi); the Mughal (Baburid) empire lasted 332 years; Babur reigned for 3 years
1530 – death of Babur; ruler of India, Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar son of Babur - Humayun
1540-54 - on the Indian throne Sherkhan Sur - leader of the Afghan tribes
1555 – Humayun regained the Indian throne
1556-1605 – the reign of Akbarshah (“Great Akbar”); streamlined the tax system, expanded the irrigation system, established internal and external trade; divided the state into 15 provinces; expanded the borders in 1559 defeated the Sur dynasty; achieved prosperity
1627-58 - reign of Shah Jahan; intensifying struggle for the throne
1658-1707 - reign of Aurangzeb; maximum limits; peak of power; persecution of representatives of non-Islamic religions; struggle for national independence (Sikhs and Marathas (Shivozhi)); the beginning of the decline of the state
1666-72 revolt against the Baburids; suppressed by Aurangzeb
1709 – an uprising in the province of Kandahar under the leadership of the head of the Afghan Ghilzai tribe, Mir-Weiskhan; Kandahar branch
1757 – capture of Bengal by England (the French were ousted); the beginning of the colonization of India; East India Campaign activities
Culture: under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra and the Jami Mosque were built; flourishing of painting and miniatures
China
XVI century – political fragmentation of the Ming state; economic decline
1618 - the ruler of Manchuria Nurhatsi began a campaign against China
1636 – Nurkhatsi’s heir, Abahai, declared himself emperor; Qing Dynasty (pure, transparent) until 1912
1643 - capture of Beijing by rebels; Li Tzu-cheng - Emperor Zhang Hsien-chong created an independent state in southwest China
1644 – the imperial army (Wu San-gua) agrees to become a vassal of Manchuria; end of the Ming Dynasty; defeat of Li Tzu-cheng and Zhang San-chung
1637 – capture of Korea
1689 – Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia (China seized the left bank of the Amur)
1757 – a decree on conducting foreign trade only under the control of the state through the port of Guangzhou (closing the country, an attempt to protect against enslavement by European countries)
1758 – conquest of the Dzungar (Oirat) Khanate; later all of Mongolia and Kashgar
II sex. XVII century – Burma and Vietnam are vassals. China
1792 – Nepal is a vassal of China
In its policy of conquest, China relied on the help of Western European countries. But since 1757 all ports except Guangzhou were closed to Europeans
Japan
In the beginning. XVI.c. Japan broke up into a number of small states
1543 – Portuguese merchant Mendis Pinto brought firearms to Japan; spread of Christianity.
1552 – the appearance of the Spaniards, Dutch and English
1573 – Oda Nobunaga united half the provinces, overthrowing the Aksikaga shogun; carried out reforms to promote economic development
1582 - assassination of Oda Nobunaga; ruler Toyotomi Hidayoshi; founded Osaka
1587 – expulsion of Catholic missionaries, leaving only Portuguese merchants
1592 - unsuccessful attack on Korea
1598 - death of Toyotomi Hidayoshi; shogun - Tokugawa Iayasu; built in Edo (modern Tokyo)
1603 - 1867 – reign of the III dynasty of shoguns - Tokugawa; completed the unification of the country
1614 - prohibition of Christianity; policy of economic self-isolation in order to protect against colonization by European countries
1636 – the Portuguese were the last to be expelled (more than 200 years of isolation)
1716-45 - reign of Yoshimune Tokugawa; encouraged the development of new lands, introduced a “100-point decree” regulating the life of the country; the beginning of the formation of capitalist relations
Ottoman Empire
Administrative structure: the empire consisted of provinces ruled by wali, provinces were divided into sanjaks ruled by sanjakbeys
Military-feudal system of land tenure: Zeamet - large land grant, owner - loan (bey)
Timar - small land grant, owner – timariot (sipah)
Continuation of the aggressive policy:
1514 – Selim I defeated the Iranian army of Ismail Safevi
1516 - capture of Syria and Palestine
1517 – capture of Cairo (Egypt) Ottoman possessions extended on 3 continents: Asia, Europe, Africa
1579 - peasant uprising led by Sheikh Jalal; Since then, all the rebels have been called “Jalalists,” and the uprisings themselves have been called “Jalalism.”
1526 – uprising led by Qalandar
1610 – “Firman of Justice” - the return to peasants of lands abandoned during the famine for a small fee
The ruin of the peasants led to the decline of agriculture in the country. The crisis of the military-feudal system of land tenure led to the decline of the military power of the Ottomans. The Empire opens markets for European states - France, England
Russian-Turkish wars: 1768-74, 1787-91
Ser. XVIII century – “Westernization” movement – development of social, cultural and spiritual life firman – special decree of the Sultan Ozin – non-Muslim
Iran
In con. XV century Iran was divided into several territories that were not subordinate to the central government. Political fragmentation.
1500-01 Ismal I Safevi conquered a number of territories and in 1502. declared himself Shahinshah (1502-24). Safavid State. Territory: Iran, Azerbaijan, part of Armenia, Afghanistan, part of Iraq, etc. Capital – Tabriz (Azerbaijan). Replaced suyurgal with tiyulni.
1587-1629 – the reign of Shah Abbas I is the pinnacle of development. Transfer of the capital to Isfahan (Iran). Tax reform. Modernization of the army with the help of English specialists (guns and firearms).
1602 - victory in the war with Turkey
Expulsion of the Portuguese from the island. Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. The East India Campaign received preferential treatment in trade with Iran.
The period of Safavid rule is the “golden age” of Iranian art
Beginning XVIII century – economic crisis, caused by a decrease in government. lands and taxes on them.
1709 – Kandahar branch
1710 - Sultan Hussein decree not to leave the land for the peasants
1722 – Mir-Mahmud, at the head of the Afghan army, captured the capital; period of the Afghan conquest; Safavids formally power
1730 – the commander of Tahmasp II (the last Safavid Shah) Nadir (from the Turkmen Afshar tribe) liberated Iran from the Afghans
1736 - overthrow of the Safavids; Nadir - Shah of Iran
1747 – assassination of Nadir Shah as a result of civil strife; collapse of the state; in Iran, the struggle between the Zend and Qajar tribes
1758 - victory of the Zend tribe; Kerim Khan Zend (1758-79)
1796 – power is in the hands of the Qajars; Agha-Mhammed - founder of the Qajar dynasty (lasted until 1925; 129 years)
IIstage (Ifloor. - 60sXIXV.)
1847 – economic crisis in European countries
Great Britain - the first industrialized country in the world; “mistress of the seas”, “industrial workshop of the world”
During this period, the industrial revolution ended.
1825 - first in the world Railway(in 1830 the world's railway length was 195 km, of which in Great Britain - 91 km) the world's first economic crisis
40s of the XIX century. – application in agricultural machines and chemicals. fertilizers
1825 - a law prohibiting strikes
1832 – the first parliamentary reform that expanded the rights of the bourgeoisie;
the new parliament established an 8-hour working day for children under 13 years of age and banned the work of children under 9 years of age
1837-1900 – reign of Queen Victoria (63 years); "age of Victoria"
1867 - the second parliamentary reform granted the right to vote to all men over 21 who own a house
Colonial policy: capture of Gibraltar (exit from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Sea), Aden (from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean),
Cape Town (Cape good hope in South Africa), Singapore (Indian Doorstep), Hong Kong (Chinese Doorstep)
Basic principle: “Divide and conquer!”; 1857 – beginning of the conquest of India (Bengal)
“White” colonies (populated by immigrants from Europe): Canada (dominion since 1867), Australia, New Zealand
France
1804 – Napoleon – Emperor of France; I Empire (1804-14)
1805 - the beginning of wars of conquest:
1805 - capture of Vienna - the capital of Austria
1805 – Battle of Trafalgar: destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by the British;
economic (continental) blockade of England
2.12.1806 - Battle of Austerlitz - defeat of the Austro-Russian army; end of the "Holy Roman Empire"
1806 - capture of Berlin - the capital of Prussia
1812 – invasion of Russia: 09/07/1812 – Battle of Borodino (the Russian army retreated, surrendering Moscow (Kutuzov));
Napoleon's army collapsed; the beginning of the collapse of the Empire
con. 1812 - Napoleon's attempt to create a new army; anti-Napoleonic coalition: Russia, England, Prussia, Austria
1813 - Battle of Leipzig - the coalition army defeated the French.
1814 - capture of Paris by the coalition army; end of the Empire; Napoleon was exiled to the island. Elbe;
1814 – Bourbon restoration (Louis XVIII); adoption of the Constitution; demand of the nobles to return the old order
1815 – seizure of power by Napoleon (100 days)
06/18/1815 – Battle of Waterloo: defeat of the French by the armies of Prussia and Russia
10.1814-06.1815 – Congress of Vienna (Russia, Austria, England, Prussia, Spain, Sweden, Portugal and France)
Decisions: France returns to the borders of 1789; reparations 700 million francs
England gets o. Malta and former colonies Holland - about. Ceylon, Cape Colony in southern Africa;
Russia – most of Poland;
Germany united into the German Confederation (instead of 200 there are now 39), led by Austria;
Rhineland, Westphalia and western lands Poland annexed to Prussia; Austria strengthened itself in Eastern Italy;
Belgium was annexed to Holland;
Switzerland regained its independence and declared itself a forever neutral state;
The monarchy was restored in Spain
Creation of the "Holy Alliance" by Austria, Russia and Prussia to fight the revolutionary movement in Europe
March 1815 – return of power to Louis XVIII; persecution of Napoleon supporters
July 1830 – dissolution of parliament; restriction of voting rights; uprising in Paris; escape of King Charles X; Louis Philippe on the throne
Orleans - July Monarchy; adoption of a new constitution that declared freedom of speech, press and assembly, lowered the age and property qualifications for voters, and provided for an increased role of parliament
1830 - capture of Algeria
1831 - suppression of the uprising of weavers in Lyon demanding higher wages
1834 - suppression of the II uprising of weavers in Lyon, who demanded the establishment of a republic and expansion of voting rights
1845 and 1847 – drought
1847 - economic crisis in Europe
02/23/1848 – the beginning of the revolution in France
02/25/1848 – declaration of France as a presidential republic; The Constitution of the Second Republic proclaimed freedom of speech and strikes, established a 10-11 hour working day; a decree was issued to provide workers with work; organization of “National Workshops” for the unemployed
December 1848 – election of President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I)
1851 - coup d'état organized by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
2.12.1852 -establishment of the Second Empire in France; Emperor Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
Germany
Medieval feudal-absolutist orders became the main cause of the revolutionary situation. The moderate bourgeoisie led the revolution and demanded a constitutional monarchy. The driving force was the petty and middle bourgeoisie, workers, advanced intelligentsia
1848 – adoption of the Constitution in Prussia; the revolutionary struggle that engulfed the scattered German states did not produce results
Fichte - ideologist of German unification
1866 – formation of the North German Confederation led by Prussia (22 states);
President of the Union - King of Prussia, Bundeschancellor - Otto von Bismarck (developed the Constitution of the Union)
1870-71 - Franco-Prussian War; Prussian victory
1871 - unification of Germany around Prussia; Prussian King Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany
Italy
1848-49 - Republic in Rome; suppressed by the French army
Giuseppe Mazzini - leader of the Roman Republicans, created the organization "Young Italy"
Lombardy and Venice were part of Austria-Hungary, Parma, Modena and Tuscany were under Habsburg rule
The process of unification of Italy took place around the Sardinian kingdom as the strongest among the Italian states.
Camillo Benso Cavour is the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a supporter of moderate reforms and a constitutional monarchy.
Convinced France to help Sardinia in the fight against Austria-Hungary (1859)
1860 - Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Palermo (Sicily) and Naples
1861 - proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy; King Victor Emanuel II; a constitutional monarchy
1866 -annexation of Venice; 1870 – Rome
Austria-Hungary formed in 1867
Switzerland
By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Switzerland - Union independent states(confederation), consisting of 22 canton states. Revolution of 1848 was reflected in the Constitution, which strengthened the central government
1863 – establishment of the Committee for International Assistance to the Wounded
1864 – signing of the international Convention on the establishment of the Red Cross Society
1865 -after the signing of the agreement on the formation of the International Union of Telegraph Operators in Paris, a
International Telegraph Bureau
Russia
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I
40s – 90s XIX century – industrial Revolution
1801-25 - reign of Alexander I; establishment of a police regime in the country (“Arakcheevism”)
1816 - creation of a revolutionary circle of officer youth “Union of Salvation”, transformed in 1818 into the “Union of Welfare”
1821-22 – dissolution of the “Union of Welfare”; creation of the Southern (Ukraine; director P.I. Pestel) and Northern (St. Petersburg; director N.M. Muravyov) societies;
developed draft constitutions: Pestel - proclamation of a republic (“Russian Truth”)
Muravyov - constitutional monarchy, 2-chamber People's Assembly
12/14/1825 – Decembrist uprising (military coup) on Senate Square on the day of the coronation of Nicholas I; depressed
1825-55 - reign of Nicholas I (“gendarme of Europe”); increased reaction; censorship creation of the Third Department of the Imperial Chancellery to fight the revolutionary movement (A.H. Benckendorff)
1828-29 – Russian-Turkish war
20s – 30s XIX century – activities of revolutionary circles: “Literary Society of the 11th number” of Belinsky, the circle of Herzen and Ogarev
40s XIX century - Slavophiles - saw a special path of development of Russia in the development of peasant communities (Khomyakov, Aksakov brothers), Westerners - a constitutional system (Granovsky, Panaev, Botkin)
1845 - “Petrashevites” (M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky) - utopian socialists
02/19/1861 – Alexander I signed a decree abolishing serfdom. The decree declared the peasants free,
The land was purchased for a ransom in installments over 49 years. “segment” - excess land above the norm
Military (1862), education (1863), zemstvo and judicial (1864), city (1870) reforms were carried out
Foreign policy: 1801 - Adoption Eastern Georgia to Russian citizenship; 1804-13 - war with Iran for the Caucasus (Peace of Gulistan); 1806. - Russian-Turkish war (conquest of Bessarabia); 1828. – entry of Eastern Armenia and Northern Azerbaijan; 1834-59 = Shamil’s struggle for the independence of Dagestan, Chechnya and Adygea;
1864 – subjugation of the entire Caucasus; 1839 - attack on the Khiva Khanate (Perovsky); 1855 – Kurile Islands;
1853-56 - Russia lost in the Crimean War to Turkey (prohibition of the maintenance of a military fleet on the Black Sea and at the mouth of the Danube, transfer part of Bessarabia to Romania) America
1812-14 – war of England against the USA; capture of the capital
Purchase of Louisiana from France in 1822. - Spain had Florida, during the war with Mexico - part of its territories
30s XIX century - the beginning of the industrial revolution
The American way of agricultural development is farming. Types of management: in the north - using machines and chemicals. fertilizers
in the south - plantations using slaves
Abolitionists - supporters of the abolition of slavery
Con. 50s XIX century - John Brown's Virginia Rebellion
US political parties: Republicans (1854; supporters of the abolition of slavery; A. Lincoln) and Democrats (1828; supporters of slavery)
1860 – Lincoln is president; demanded the gradual abolition of slavery
02.1861 – 6 southern states announced the creation of the Southern Confederacy (capital Richmond)
1861-65 – American Civil War (North - South); victory of the North
01/01/1863 - decree abolishing slavery
1865 - assassination of Lincoln
law on homesteads - plots allocated free of charge to slaves
1866 - amendments to the Constitution on equal civil and political rights of blacks and whites
1867 – Purchase of Alaska from Russia
Foreign policy is based on the “Monroe Doctrine” - “America for the Americans” (appropriation of the wealth of South America and exclusion of Europeans)
Haiti– the island was discovered by Columbus and belonged to France; in 1804 – as a result of the uprising (Toussaint Louverture) proclaimed
First Republic in Latin America
Mexico– 1810-11 – rebellion against the Spanish colonialists (Miguel Hidalgo);
Jose Maria Morelos continued to fight until 1815
The struggle was supported by the landowners
1821(28) Mexican independence; abolition of slavery
Venezuela– 1819 – gaining independence (Simon Bolivar turned to European countries for help;
I President; dreamed of a confederation of countries liberated from Spanish rule); providing assistance to the rebels of New Granada; unification of Venezuela and New Granada - New (Greater) Colombia
1830 – Simon Bolivar removed from the post of President
Argentina– 1810 – Argentine independence (General José San Martín)
1826 – proclamation of the Republic
Chile– Argentine rebels crossed the Andes and assisted the Chilean rebels; 1817 - declaration of independence
Peru– 1820 - troops of San Mrtin (Argentina) crossed by sea to Peru
1821 - capture of the capital Lima; declaration of independence
Ecuador– 1822
Bolivia– 1823-24 - Bolivar's army (Venezuela) provided assistance to the rebels of Upper Peru.
1825 – Republic of Bolivia (in honor of Bolivar)
Uruguay– 1830
Cuba– 1869 – 78 – struggle for independence
Brazil- the only Portuguese colony South America; in 1822 gained independence; monarchy did not abolish slavery
By 1830, Latin America was freed from the colonialists, and Republics were proclaimed in all countries except Brazil.
India
The British government established a “Council for the Supervision of Indian Affairs”, which determined the colonial policy of the kingdom.
The Governor of the East India Campaign in Calcutta was appointed by the Governor General of India.
Sepoys - a mercenary army from the local population led by the British
1843 – The East India Campaign subjugated the Sindh region. India
1857-59 – sepoy uprising; started in Bengal; the reason was the introduction of rifles with a rifled barrel (shells for them were wrapped in paper, greased with pork or cow fat); brutally suppressed, the rebels forced Baburid Bahadur Shah II (the last of the Baburids) to sign an appeal to the people to unite, Princess Lakshmi Bai proclaimed the independence of her principality of Jhansi Tantiya Topi waged a guerrilla war against the British
1858 - conquest of India by Great Britain; liquidation of the East India Campaign; the colony is subject to the government.
Reforms: in agricultural sector, the opportunity for Indians to study (even in Europe) and hold government jobs. posts
China
1840-42 – the first “opium” war of England against China; capture of Shanghai and Hong Kong;
Treaty of Nanjing: China opened a number of ports for trade, but did not recognize the legality of opium imports
1856-60 – second “opium” war; England and France
capture of Beijing; opening of all ports, right of immunity from jurisdiction for English and French subjects; foreign ownership in China; China is a semi-colony.
1850-64 – the Taiping peasant war under the leadership of the village teacher Hong Hsiu-quan in southern China in Canton; proclamation of Taiping Tianguo - “Heavenly State of Great Prosperity” (capital Nanjing); militarization, at first it was supported by landowners and merchants, later an internecine war began
in 1864 the state was defeated by the forces of China, England, the USA and France
1861 – on the throne is Princess Qixi “mother of the country”; the beginning of the strengthening of China; dissemination of science and technology in Europe
Japan
For 213 years, Japan was economically isolated.
1854 – signing of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the USA
1855 – Russian-Japanese treaty recognizing the Kuril Islands as the property of Russia
1858 – opening of several more ports for the United States; establishment of extraterritorial rights for American citizens - immunity, immunity from local laws, tax exemption
1867 – overthrow of the shogun, end of the military-political regime (almost 700 years), transfer of power to Emperor Mutsuhito (reigned 45 years) crowned Meiji “enlightened rule”),
1852-1912 - reign of Emperor Meiji
Meiji reforms: agrarian – made it possible to purchase and sell land; cash (not food) tax; development of capitalist relations; military - the introduction of universal military service (1872); loss of samurai significance; formation of an army according to the European model; introduction of a single currency - the yen; rapprochement with Europe;
1869 – the law on the abolition of “4 layers” - abolition of classes, equality (1871. abolition of the lower powerless layer.
The reforms put an end to feudal fragmentation, gave impetus to the industrialization of the country, and went down in history as the “Meiji Revolution”
Ottoman Empire
Territory: Balkan Peninsula, Crimea, Black Sea region, Azov region, Asia Minor, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, part of Transcaucasia, North. Africa.
End of the 18th century - “Eastern Question” (interest of England, France, Austria and Russia in Turkish possessions)
In con. XVIII century the collapse of the state has begun. European countries helped suppress the national liberation movement, because were interested in keeping the empire under their influence.
Exacerbation of the Eastern Question:
1827 – Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia signed an agreement in London to grant autonomy to Greece.
1828-29 – Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire; defeat of the Turks. According to the peace treaty signed in Adrianople, Russia received Georgia, part of Armenia, and the north-west of the Black Sea region. Türkiye granted autonomy to Serbia and Greece.
1829 – Greece is declared an independent monarchy.
1832 - defeat of the Ottomans by the troops of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali;
1833 - Russia saved Turkey; Russian-Turkish alliance agreement, unfavorable for England and France.
1839 - repeated defeat of the Sultan's troops by the troops of Muhammad Ali with the support of England and France.
Agreement between Russia and Turkey in “Kichik Kaynar” on granting political rights to the Ozins.
1840 – signing by European powers of an agreement on the integrity of the Ottoman Empire; Muhammad Ali received the right of inheritance in Egypt and Sudan.
1853-56 – Crimean War with Russia; victory of Turkey with the support of England and France; reason: the demand of Nicholas I to recognize Russia as the intercessor of all Orthodox peoples.
The Paris Peace Treaty ensured the “protection” of Western states over Turkey; obtaining concessions - rights to rent land by foreigners, develop mineral resources, and build enterprises.
The "Reform Decree" legalized the religious rights of the Zoins
1860 – adoption of the Constitution of the Ottoman-Turkic state, by the 70s. XIX century Turkey's external debt amounted to 2.4 billion francs; The Ottoman Empire is a semi-colony, Ozin is not a Muslim.
“Tanzimat” - the era of “Westernizing” reforms in industry, agriculture, and military affairs; harmed Turkish culture by distorting the understanding of European life. Movement of the “New Ottomans” - criticized “Westernism”
Afghanistan
Until 1709 Afghanistan was under the rule of India (eastern) and Safavid Iran (western).
1649-1709 – trade routes in the hands of the Safavids.
1666-72 revolt against the Baburids; suppressed by Aurangzeb.
1709 – an uprising in the province of Kandahar under the leadership of the head of the Ghilzai tribe, Mir-Weiskhan; proclamation of the Khanate.
1722 - the troops of Mir-Makhmudkhan (son of Mir-Weiskhan) occupied the capital of Iran - Isfahan; Mir Mahmudkhan - Shah of Iran, liberation struggle of the Iranians (Nadir)
1729 – expulsion of Afghans from Iran
1736 – Nadirkhan captured Afghanistan; to keep them in obedience, he relocated 12 thousand Iranian soldiers to Kabul and other cities
1747 – the jirga (council) of tribal leaders declared the head of the tribe, Abdali Akhmedkhan (“Drrri-Doron” - “pearl of pearls”) as Shah
Afghanistan; Dorrani dynasty; aggressive policy
1793-1801 – Zamanshah (grandson of Ahmed Shah) pursues a policy of conquest
Since 1809 – vizier – head of the Barakzai tribe – Fathan manages all affairs
1826 - Fathan's brother Dost Mohammed declared himself emir; Barakzai dynasty
1838-42 – The First Anglo-Afghan War ended in the defeat of Great Britain
1839 - capture of Kabul by the British
1841 – uprising in Kabul (Akbarshah)
1842 – restoration of the power of Dost Mohammed
1855 – Anglo-Afghan Treaty
1857 – military agreement with Great Britain; the first step towards turning Afghanistan into a vassal state
1863 – internecine war for the throne; England declared non-intervention
Iran
Absolute monarchy. A secret council operated under the Shah. The state is divided into vilayets, governed by beklarbegs. The heir was allocated Azerbaijan with a residence in Tabriz.
1797-1834 - reign of Fathali Shah; Iran finds itself embroiled in international politics
1813 – Gulistan Russian-Iranian Treaty, according to which Iran lost Mountainous Karabakh, Ganji, Derbent and the Northern Khanates;
Russia received the right to maintain a fleet in the Caspian Sea
1828 – according to the Turkmanchay peace treaty with Russia (after the war of 1826-28), Iran lost the entire Caucasus
1841 - an agreement with England, which opened the Iranian market for British goods; disruption of the economy
Seid Ali-Muhammad is the founder of the Babid teachings. (1844) Through the Babs (“Gate”), the “hidden Imam Mahdi” conveys his will to the people.
Seyid Ali-Muhammad wrote the book “Beyan” (“Revelation”), in which he outlined the foundations of his teaching. He declared himself a prophet instead of Muhammad, and his work a new holy scripture.
1848-50 - revolt of the Babids; demands: abolition of private property and large land ownership, existing religion and state. building, equality of all people. Suppressed due to disunity, contradictions with religion, and was not supported by the population.
1853 – England forced Iran to renounce its claims to Herat (Afghanistan)
1856 - capture of Herat; Anglo-Iranian war; Iran lost; Treaty of Paris (1857) renunciation of Iranian claims to Herat;
Great Britain is the guarantor of the resolution of the Iran-Afghan conflicts
Africa
Portuguese colonies Angola And Mozambique were bases for the slave trade on the African continent. In con. XIX century 90% of the continent were colonies of developed countries. Liberia and Ethiopia retained their independence
Liberia
1816 - A movement began in the United States for the placement of blacks freed from slavery. For this purpose, 13 thousand km 2 and islands were purchased on the coast of Guinea. Providence. The Monrovia resettlement center was organized (in honor of US President M. Monroe).
1847 – proclamation of the Republic of Liberia; capital - Monrovia; democratic constitution
Ethiopia
Feudal fragmentation.
1855 - the son of the average landowner Kass declared himself emperor; unification of the country; creation of the army, economic reforms
1857 - with the support of large feudal lords and the church, England started the war
The threat of a nationwide uprising forced England to retreat. Ethiopia retained its independence.
South Africa
Indigenous people: Hottentots (Khoikoins), Bushmen (Sans) and Bantu. All R. XVII century The Dutch founded the Capsa colony here, inhabited by immigrants from Holland and France (Boers).
Early 19th century – capture South Africa Great Britain
The displaced Boers seized land from the African population and created 2 states: the Orange Republic and the Transvaal.
1852 - British recognition of the Transvaal
1854 - recognition by England of the Orange Republic
Mamelukes - guardsmen from slaves captured in Georgia and the North Caucasus, in the Egyptian Sultan's army
Mamelukes and local population fought against Napoleon's army.
1830 – colonization Algeria
1847 – death of Abdulkadir, leader of the liberation movement
Morocco fought against Portuguese, Spanish and French colonialists.
Socio-political ideas.
Socialism - originated in France in the 30s. XIX century; the idea that by transforming private property into public property it is possible to build a society of free, equal, happy people living in abundance. The ideas of the utopian socialists were formulated by the Englishmen T. More (“Utopia”) and R. Owen, C. Campanella (“City of the Sun”), G. Babeuf; in the 19th century by the French Claude-Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier (plan for a new society consisting of phalanxes) and the Englishman Robert Owen (improved working conditions in his factory),
German socialists (communists) - K. Marx and F. Engels saw the construction of socialism through the overthrow of capitalism by the proletariat
Utopian socialists of Russia: V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, "populists"
Chartism is a socio-political movement in England (“People’s Charter” of 1837) for granting workers political rights and their legislative consolidation (D. Garney, O. Connor).
09/28/1864 – the First International was created in London, uniting the labor movement different countries.
I. Newton (1642-1727) – mathematician, mechanic, astronomer, physicist; discovered the law universal gravity, the theory of the motion of celestial bodies, the basis of celestial mechanics, invented the glass lens and glass telescope; at the age of 30 he became a member of the Royal Society of London (academy)
G.V. Leibniz (1646-1716) – at the age of 15 he was a university student; philosopher, mathematician and historian; in 1700 founded the Berlin Academy of Sciences; formulated the law of sufficiency, created calculus differentials; invented a calculating machine and a clock with a pendulum.
M.V. Lomonosov - graduated from the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, worked at the St. Petersburg Academy; laid the foundations of physical chemistry, discovered the law of conservation of matter, the doctrine of color, the atmosphere of Venus, the origin of minerals, wrote a manual on metallurgy, poet, mosaic artist, honorary member of the Academies of Sweden and Bologna, A. Lievenhoek - invented the microscope, E. Jenner - grafting from smallpox
20s XIX century - Jacquard invented a loom for weaving colored threads.
20s XIX century - river steamers; in the 30s – paddle steamers crossed the ocean; 50-60s - Steamboats have replaced sailing ships.
1842 – D. Joule and Y.R. Mayer discovered the law of conservation of energy.
1846 - discovery of the planet Neptune.
50s XIX century - Kant put forward the theory that solar system consists of a dusty nebula.
60s XIX century - internal combustion engine, practical use since 1870.
1869 – D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic table of elements.
con. 1860 - a telegraph cable was laid from England to America (along the bottom of the Atlantic).
In 1870 200 thousand km of railways.
80s 19th century - the Montgolfier brothers invented balloon.
Charles Darwin - evolutionary theory of development.
Literature and art
Daniel Defoe - "Life and amazing Adventures Robinson Crusoe."
Jonathan Swift - "Gulliver's Adventures"
Pierre Beaumarchais - The Marriage of Figaro.
Friedrich Schiller - playwright, participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement; works - “The Maid of Orleans”, “Robbers”.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe - "Faust".
Honore de Balzac - “Human Comedy”, “Père Goriot”.
Jean Baptiste Moliere - "The Bourgeois in the Nobility."
V. Hugo - “Les Miserables”, “The Man Who Laughs”.
G. Heine - Weavers.
A.S. Pushkin sympathized with the Decembrists.
Li Fuzhen – “Flowers in the Mirror.”
Composers: I.S. Bach (“The Sorrows of Matthew”), V.A. Mozart (“a real miracle of the 18th century”), Ludwig van Beethoven, F. Chopin, Schubert, Schumann, Verdi.
30s XIX century – critical realism.
Painting: Jacques Louis David (“The Oath of the Horatii”, “The Death of Marat”), F. Goya (“Execution of the Rebels”, “What Courage!”), E. Delacroix – romanticism (“Dante Virgil”, “Freedom Leading the People” ), O. Daumier – political caricature, realism, G. Courbet, J. Millet, K.P. Bryullov (“The Last Day of Pompeii”), A.A. Ivanov (“The Appearance of Christ to the People”)
IIperiod of modern times (70s.XIXV. – 1918)
The period is characterized by the formation of monopoly capitalism, which is characterized by the following. signs 1) the emergence of monopolies in the sphere of capitalism; 2) the emergence of financial oligarchies; 3) the acquisition of great importance for the export of capital abroad; 4) division of the world by international monopolies; 5) completion of the territorial division of the world by industrial states.
The main value of industrial civilization is technical development
Europe
1873 – Global economic crisis
Franco-Prussian War 1870
Reasons: restoration of the importance of France in Europe, weakening of Prussia. Reason: as a result of the revolution of 1868. in Spain, Queen Isabella II fled to France. A struggle began between the leading European states for the Spanish throne. The “Ems Dispatch” is France’s demand to renounce its claims to the Spanish throne of Germany.
07/17/1870 – France declared war on Prussia
1.09.1870 – encirclement of the French army by the Germans near Sedan (September 2 – surrender); encirclement of another army at Metz; The war changes from defensive to aggressive.
France
4.09.1870 – The French Legislative Corps announced the overthrow of Napoleon III – revolution; formation of the Provisional National Defense Government (General Trosyu).
09/19/1870 - encirclement and surrender of Paris to the Prussian army.
02/08/1871 – elections to the National Assembly; new government (Thiers).
02/26/1871 – drawing up the Frankfurt Peace Treaty with Germany (indemnity of 5 billion francs, the German army remains on French territory until the debt is repaid, transfer of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany).
03/18/1871 – the government army attacked the National Guard; uprising in Paris.
03/26/1871 – power is in the hands of the Central Committee of the National Guard; elections to the Paris Commune - the governing body of Paris.
05/10/1871 signing of the Frankfurt Peace Treaty.
05/21/1871 - defeat of the Paris Commune with German help (lasted 75 days); Thiers (monarchist) – president.
05/24/1873 – President – Marshal McMadon (monarchist).
1873 – payment of indemnity; 16.09. - withdrawal of German troops.
01/30/1875 – Constitution of the Third Republic; 2-chamber parliament (Chamber of Deputies and Senate; 4 years), the president is elected by a joint session of parliament for a term of 7 years; “La Marseillaise” is an anthem; July 14 - Bastille Day - National holiday.
1881-82 – laws on education: separation of school and church, compulsory free education for children under 13 years of age.
1884 - resolution of strikes.
1876 – President Jules Grvy.
1880 - creation of the "Workers' Party of France".
1887 -political crisis; President Sadi Karpo (1887-94; was assassinated by anarchists) – movement against democracy, nationalism, chauvinism
1894 – President Casimir Pere; “The Dreyfus Affair” - the false accusation of the Jew A. Dreyfus of transferring secret data to Germany and sentencing to life imprisonment; information got into the press (E. Zola); acquitted in 1906 (the spy turned out to be Count Esterhazy).
1910 – pension law (retirement age – 65 years).
Colonial expansion: 1881 – Tunisia; 1883 - fight against Vietnam; 1885 – fight against China; 1891 – Guinea; 1892 - Senegal.
1893 – Timbuktu and the protectorate over Laos; 1894-96 – Madagascar; 1914 - Morocco.
Germany
01/18/1871 - at Versailles, all German monarchs announced the creation of a united Germany (another 4 - 22 monarchies, 3 cities - Lubeck, Bremen and Hamburg, Alsace - Lorraine as a “special region of the empire” joined the Northern German Confederation); Emperor – King of Prussia Wilhelm I; Chancellor - Otto von Bismarck (“Iron Chancellor”, 1871-90).
04.1871 – the all-German Constitution; parliament - the Council of the Union (Bundesrat) and the Reichstag is convened and dissolved by the emperor; Prussian hegemony; The chancellor is the chairman of the Bundesrat.
Germany by the beginning XX century came in first place in the chemical industry and second after the United States in the production of iron and steel; industrial production increased 7 times – second place in the world after the USA.
1872 - a law on the separation of school and church.
“Kulturkampf” (“Struggle for Culture”) - reducing the influence of the Catholic Church, transferring affairs to the state according to civil status records.
1873 – “Treaty of the Three Emperors” of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia in order to prevent the rapprochement of Russia and Austria-Hungary with France; in 1881 supplemented by an agreement on non-intervention of 2 treaty countries in the event of a conflict by a 3rd country.
1875 - creation of the German Social Democratic Party.
1878 - The “Law against the dangerous aspirations of the Social Democrats” was adopted after the assassination attempt on the emperor.
1879 - alliance with Austria-Hungary.
1882 - Italy joined the alliance with Austria-Hungary - the “Triple Alliance”, aimed at fighting for the territorial redistribution of the world.
1889 – Emperors Frederick III (100 days), Wilhelm II.
1890 – Bismarck’s resignation; chancellors - Caprivi (1890-94), H. Hohenlohe (1894-1900).
1891 – creation of the chauvinist organization “German Bloc”; motto: “The King is over Prussia, Prussia is over Germany, Germany is over the world.”
Colonies: 1882 – purchase of land in Agra Pequen Bay on the southwestern coast of Africa (a protectorate since 1884); – Togo and Cameroon, northern Guinea and islands; 1885 – East Africa and Zanzibar – “German East Africa”, Marshall Islands; late 90s – part of the province of Shadum (China), the Caroline and Mariana Islands and part of the Samoan Island.
Germany tried to compensate for the small number of colonies in Africa by advancing to the Middle East (“Drang nach Osten”). Germany agreed to the seizure of Tunisia by France in order to aggravate relations between France and Italy.
1889 – the emperor’s visit to Palestine and discussion of the construction of the Baghdad railway and its extension to the Persian Gulf.
1903 – start of construction of the Baghdad railway.
1905 and 1911 conflicts with France over Morocco.
England
In England, the monarchy did not play a big role in political life.
W. Gladstone - Prime Minister in 1864-74 (held the post 4 times); trade unions received the right to defend their interests in court, strikes, secret voting in parliamentary elections, and school reform.
B. Disraeli - Prime Minister in 1874-1880; 54-hour work week, ban on hiring children under 10 years of age; war with Afghanistan
1900 – creation of the trade union party “Committee of Workers’ Representatives” (since 1906 - Labor).
1902 – agreement on support and financial assistance from Japan.
1904 - agreement with France - Entente (in 1907, Russia joined).
1909 – expansion of the composition of legislative councils in India.
1911 – parliamentary reform: limiting the Upper House’s veto power, solving financial problems; The term of office of parliament is 5 years, the salary of deputies.
1911 – the largest strike of coal miners; the law “On Minimum Wages”, a ban on the removal of damages for strikes from trade unions, pensions for victims of accidents at the enterprise and over 70 years of age, an 8-hour working day for miners, sickness and unemployment insurance - “mini-revolution in English” "
end of the 19th century – beginning XX century – lost the status of “industrial workshop of the world”; but retained the status of a financial center and a leader in shipping, in 3rd place in terms of volume industrial production.
Colonies: capture of Baluchi, from 1876 Queen Victoria - Emperor of India, received Cyprus for supporting Turkey in the Russian-Turkish War, 1877. annexation of the African Boer republics of Transvaal and Orange (since 1910, the Union of South Africa is a dominion); 1878. according to the Treaty of Gundamak, Afghanistan is dependent on England; 1882 – occupation of Egypt; 80-90s – capture of Burma (1886), Nigeria, Somalia, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, southeastern Guinea and the Zanzibar islands; 1899 - war against the Boer Republic.
Granting dominion rights to Australia in 1900, New Zealand in 1907, South Africa in 1910.
1890 – proposal from the Minister of the Cape Colony for the construction of the “Three K” railway. (Cape Town - Cairo - Kolkata).
Ireland
1875 - Deputy Parnell demanded in parliament the adoption of a law granting Ireland dominion status (Home Rule).
Organizations: “Land-Water League”, “Women’s Land League”, “Warriors of the Moonlight”, “White Sons”, “Invincible Heroes”
Party "Shinfein" ("We ourselves") - 1905. A. Griffith.
1914 – approval of the law on Home Rule (Dominion) due to the threat civil war.
Russia
1872 – a permanent representative was appointed to Japan.
1873 – agreement on spheres of influence; England withdrew its claims to Khiva, Russia recognized Afghanistan outside its zone of influence.
1875 – Russia handed over the Kuril Islands to Japan in exchange for renouncing claims to Sakhalin.
12/26/1876 – an international conference in Constantinople on the issue of granting autonomy to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria, and independence to Serbia.
1877-78 – Russian-Turkish war (surrender of the Turks near Plevna, 01.1878. Skobelev took Adrianople).
02/19/1878 – The San Stefano Preliminary Peace Treaty (granting independence to Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia and Romania; indemnity of 1 billion rubles) was not recognized by European states (England).
06/13/1878 – The Berlin Congress downplayed the significance of Russia’s victory; England received the right to enter Black Sea and Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina received autonomy as part of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria was divided into 2 parts, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence, in payment of indemnity Russia received the ports of Batumi, Kars and Ardagan (Caucasus).
1881 - secret Iranian-Russian agreement on the Persian-Turkmen border; agreement on the border with China.
1885 - end of the conquest of Central Asia.
1891 – determination of the border of Central Asia and Afghanistan along the Pamirs.
80-90s XIX century – economic recovery and consolidation of enterprises: Prodmet (ferrous metallurgy of the South, 1909), Produgol (1909), Truboprodazha, Krovlya, syndicates of copper rolling factories (1903) and the Copper society (1907 .).
1898-1901 - overtaking the United States, it came out on top in the world in Oil production; in fourth place in metal smelting, Russia imported (imported) the capital of France (34% - first place), England, Germany, and Belgium.
1897(98) - capture of Lushun (Liaodong Peninsula), where Port Arthur was built (leased from China).
1902 - Treaty with China “On Manchuria”.
1904-05 – Russian-Japanese War (January 24, 1904, Japanese attack on Port Arthur, sinking of the cruiser “Varyag” and gunboats.
"Korean" in the Korean port of Chemulpo, 02.1905. - defeat of the Russian army near Muclin, 05/15/1905. - defeat of the Russian fleet in the Tsushima Strait). According to the peace treaty, Russia was losing influence in Korea, which was ceded to Japan, and gave Japan free lease of territories in the Far East (Port Arthur) with the railway, Sakhalin south of the 50th latitude.
Socio-political thought: Plekhanov - group “Emancipation of Labor” 1883 (socialist and communist ideas; the working class is a revolutionary force, renewal of society through social reforms).
1885 – “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class” (V, I, Lenin).
Social democratic groups of D. Blagoev, P. Tochissky, Brusnev.
1898 - all social democratic parties united into the RSDLP (Russian Social Democratic Labor Party).
1905 – The RSDLP was divided into the Bolsheviks (V.I. Lenin; for the abolition of private property and its transfer into the hands of the state, the seizure of power through an armed uprising, state power in the hands of the workers) and the Mensheviks (reforms).
“Union of October 17” (“Octobrists”) – monarchists; Cadets are constitutional democrats; Social Revolutionaries - social revolutionaries.
1905-07 – I revolution in Russia; started 9.01. a peaceful demonstration led by priest Gapon with a petition to the tsar.
democratic reforms, the demonstration was shot - “Bloody Sunday”; riot on the battleship Potemkin.
10/17/1905 – the Tsar’s manifesto on democratic freedoms and the establishment of the State Duma (parliament).
10/27/1905 - riot in Kronstadt and St. Petersburg.
12.1905 – law on elections to the Duma.
04/27/1906 – the beginning of the work of the Duma (448 deputies, 1/4 peasants); the Trudovik faction proposed to distribute the land to the peasants; 06/09/1906 - dissolution of the Duma.
9.11.1906 - decree on the resettlement of peasants.
1906 - agrarian reform of P. Stolypin (abolition of collective land ownership, loans for the purchase of land, resettlement to Siberia, Central Asia and Far East); Stolypin was killed in Kyiv in 1911.
01.1907 – Elections to the Second Duma; 3.06. – dissolution; repeal of the election law; defeat of the revolution (incompleteness).
06/3/1907 – elections to the Third Duma; “June Third Monarchy”; the election procedure ensured the interests of the landowners (1 landowner vote = 4 bourgeois votes = 260 peasants = 543 workers); bicameral parliament (State Council is the upper house, 50% of which is appointed by the tsar); the tsar has the right of veto, the government is responsible to the tsar.
Russia is a constitutional monarchy
Foreign policy: 08/31/1907. - convention on dividing Iran into spheres of influence: northern - Russia, middle - neutral, southern - England, non-interference of Russia in the affairs of Afghanistan and Tibet, entry into the Entente (Triple Entente), 1912. – creation of the Balkan Union (Russia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro).
Politics in the colonies: the “plantation model” of management in Central Asia, adopted from France
Austria-Hungary
1867 – formation of a state based on an agreement between the elites of the two countries; territory: Austria - Czech Republic, Moravia, Galicia, Bukovina and Hungary - Slovakia, Croatia, Transylvania (30 million out of 50 million - conquered Slavic peoples); adoption of the constitution, ruler of the empire - Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph (Habsburg dynasty); in Austria, imperial power was limited to the Reichstag, in Hungary - to the Diet; 3 imperial ministries: foreign policy, naval and financial, the rest are independent in each part of the empire.
The Hungarian economy is one of the most backward in Europe. Economic development The empire depended on the import of foreign capital (France, Belgium, Germany). Colonial oppression national outskirts, in Hungary, Romanians and Slavs were deprived of political rights.
1880 – introduction of bilingualism for judicial and administrative matters in the Czech Republic; 1882 – training in two languages at the University of Paris.
1884 – “emergency law” against the labor movement (Prime Minister Taaffe); dissolution of trade unions, suspension of workers' newspapers.
1889 – creation of the ASDP (Austrian Social Democratic Party; V. Adler; “Hainfeld Program”).
7-8.12.1890 - creation of the Social Democratic Party of Hungary (Pal Engelman).
The Pan-German Party advocated the unification of Germany and Austria.
The Christian Socialist Party (Lueger) consisted of Austrian Catholics and promoted the ideas of “ Greater Germany", anti-Semitism, class peace, resolving social conflicts in the spirit of "brotherhood and love".
06/09/1893 – demonstration demanding democratic freedoms.
1896 – election reform law; 1907 – new election law (men over 24 years old) – Gauça government.
Foreign policy: 1873 – “Union of Three Emperors” (Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany).
June 6, 1876 agreement between Russia and Austria-Hungary on neutrality in the event of a conflict with Turkey.
5.10.1908 - capture of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The “War Party”, led by the heir to the throne, Franz Ferninant, began preparations for the World War.
1912-13 – Balkan wars
1912 – creation of the Balkan Union (Russia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro).
I Balkan War - the final expulsion of Turkey from the Balkans (Treaty of London).
II Balkan War - redistribution of territories liberated from Turkey (Macedonia); Bulgaria started a war against Serbia and Greece, Montenegro and Romania provided assistance to Serbia and Greece, Turkey also entered the war; defeat of Bulgaria.
The Balkans – the “powder keg” of Europe
Bulgaria
Vasil Levsky - leader of the liberation movement (executed in 1872).
1876 – the uprising of Hristo Votev under the motto “Freedom or Death” (the day of his death, June 1, 1876, is celebrated as Remembrance Day).
The northern part of the country gained independence under the terms of the Berlin Congress of 1878. In April 1878 The Tiernovo Constitution was adopted, the prince must be elected by the people (Prussian officer Alexander Battenberg on the recommendation of the Russian Tsar)
1881 – abolition of the constitution; sole rule
09.1881 – capture of southern Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia)
11/14/1885 – invasion of Serbian troops; defeat of the Serbs
1886 – military coup (Chairman of the State Council S. Stambolov – severance of relations with Russia); since 1887 German Prince Ferdinand I of Coburg is in power.
1896 – restoration of diplomatic relations with Russia.
1913 – dissatisfaction with the results of the Balkan Wars pushed Bulgaria towards rapprochement with Germany and the outbreak of the Second Balkan War.
08/10/1913 - peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Bulgaria transferred Adrianople to Turkey and lost all previously captured lands
Serbia- independent state since 1878, 1858-1903. - Oberenovich dynasty; since 1903 – Karageorgievich dynasty (pro-Russian).
Romania
1877 - declaration of independence.
1878 – recognition of independence under the Berlin Treaty.
1881 – Romania is a kingdom.
Foreign policy is twofold: flirting with both Germany and Russia in pursuit of territories.
Montenegro
1878 – autonomy within Austria-Hungary; economically backward.
1905 - adoption of the constitution - constitutional monarchy.
1910 – dispersal of the Assembly (parliament) – absolute monarchy.
Albania
1912 – declaration of independence (freed from almost 500 years of Turkish yoke).
1913 - by decision of the London Conference, a neutral principality under international control.
1914 – the German prince Wilhelm Wied became a prince, but escaped; the main influence is the Serbs who support the rights of Esad Pasha.
Italy
1871 – the entry of Rome into Italy – the end of the unification; the power of the Pope within the borders of the Vatican, the Vatican is a state.
Merchant navy– 3rd place in the world.
Last place in Europe in terms of per capita income.
1870-80 – construction of the Mont Cenis and Saint Gotthard tunnels, connecting Italy with France and Switzerland.
Beginning XX century – strengthening the process of concentration of production and capital (1902 – iron and steel alloy cartel, 1906 – “Fiat”).
1893-94 - Peasant riots in Sicily.
1898 - strike in Milan.
1903-14 – the government of G. Giolitti saw that without increasing wages (standard of living), industrial development is impossible (liberalism).
Foreign policy: irredentism, 1882. - entry into the Triple Alliance, 1889. – occupation of Somalia, 1890 - capture of Eritrea, 1895 - attempted occupation of Ethiopia, 1902. – treaty with France on neutrality, 1908. – Italian protest against the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, 1909. - Treaty with Russia on the Balkans, 1911. – attack on Libya – Italian-Turkish war (since 1912 – Libya (Cerenaica and Tripolitania) – a colony of Italy).
America
Lagged behind European countries on the export of capital. During the First World War, it came out on top in all industries. Emergence of trusts: 1901 – Morgan (“Steel Corporation”), 1870. - Rockefeller's Standard Oil, 1903. – Morgan and Rockefeller banks pooled capital of $22 billion.
1870 – 15th Amendment to the Constitution - blacks received the right to vote
1872 - the law on amnesty for rebels led to the emergence of the Ku Klux Klan organization and the Lynchings.
1867 - farmers' organization "Grangers".
1877-81 – President Hayes (Republican).
1880 – the last armed conflict with the Indians; were taken under the “guardianship” of the state-reservation.
1881 – “Federation of United Trade Unions and Labor Union of the USA and Canada” (since 1886 – American Labor Federation.
ATF (S. Gompers), in 1914 – 2 million people, defended the interests of highly skilled workers).
1890 – the Sherman “antitrust” law against monopoly prices and corruption.
1894 – first Monday in September – Labor Day.
1900-14 - “progressive period”.
1901-09 – President T. Roosevelt; “A Just Path” - the fight against monopolies; the main achievement is the expansion of the powers of the president and the executive branch; founder of the National Progressive Party; reformed the “Monroe Doctrine” - “America for Americans” (appropriation of the wealth of South America and exclusion of Europeans) into the doctrine of “America for the USA”, the role of the United States is “the police of the Western Hemisphere”, acting with the help of a “thick club”; increased the role of the state and the president, died as a result of an assassination attempt in 1919.
1912-20 – President W. Wilson; Unlerwood's law on reducing customs tariffs; introduction of a progressive income tax, reform of the electoral system.
1914 – a law prohibiting trusts from collecting damages from trade unions during strikes.
Foreign policy: 1867 – purchase of Alaska from Russia;;1882. – agreement with Korea on the opening of 3 ports; 1889 – I Pan-American Conference in Washington (creation of the international association “Congress of American Republics”); 1895 – mediation in the conflict between England and Venezuela over British Guiana; obtaining the island of Samoa.
1898 – Spanish-American War (first colonial war); The USA received Puerto Rico, Guam, Hawaii, the Philippines for 20 million dollars, Cuba received nominal independence.
1899 – a note (Hay Doctrine) to European states with the doctrine of “open doors and equal opportunities” in China.
1903 - an agreement with Cuba that controls its domestic and foreign policy. A similar agreement with Dominican Republic(1907).
1903 – The United States bought shares of the Panama Canal, located on Colombian territory, from France, organized a riot and proclaimed Panama an “independent” republic; the rights to build the canal were transferred to the United States; the canal was built by 1914.
Transformation of Latin American countries into “banana republics” - raw materials appendages. By 1870 – the process of formation of politically independent states is almost over.
Last Thursday XIX century - the beginning of industrial progress.
Latin America
By 1870 the process of formation of politically independent states is almost over.
In con. XIX century all Latin American countries turned into semi-colonies of the USA and England.
Cuba
1868-78 - the struggle for independence.
1895 - uprising led by José Martí and Maximo Gomez.
1898 – as a result of the Spanish-American War, Cuba was declared “independent” (Treaty of Paris), but was actually a US protectorate.
Mexico
1876 - state a coup initiated by the United States with the support of large landowners; Porfirio Diaz was in power until 1911. - dictatorship.
1909 peasant revolts; Emiliano Zapata organized a junta to protect the peasants, its motto is “Land and Freedom.”
Madero - Diaz's opponent in the 1910 elections; on the eve of the elections, he was put in prison, fled to the United States, the “Plan of San Luis Potosi” program - promised to return the land to the Indians, to give part of the landowners’ lands to the peasants; from 06.06.1911 - the president; did not make any major changes; shot by Diaz's comrade Huerta in 1913.
1910-17 - bourgeois revolution.
Peasant movement before 1917: in the south - Emiliano Zapata (agrarian program “Ayal Plan”); in the north – Francisco Villa (slogan “Land and Freedom”).
02.1913 - 07.1914 - Huerta's dictatorship caused a civil war.
1917 – democratic Constitution.
Brazil
Slave revolt in the province of Rio Grande do Norte - proclaimed a republic, President Bonifacio.
1883 – “Manifesto of Freedom” by Andres Rebuzas and José Patrosino.
05/13/1888 – The “Golden Law” abolishing slavery was signed by the temporary regent Princess Isabel.
07/14/1889 – demonstration of supporters of the republic; the army rose (Marshal Deodoro de Fonseco).
11/19/1889 – Pedro II’s abdication of the throne and departure to Portugal; Proclamation of the Republic (Marshal Deodoro de Fonseco).
1891 – the constitution, according to which the country was named the United States of Brazil (20 states); Only literate people could participate in elections (90% of the population is illiterate).
Argentina
1870 - end of the war with Paraguay.
1871 – epidemics of hepatitis and cholera.
1872 – opening of the National Bank; creating conditions for immigrants.
1876 – Immigration and Colonization Act; sale of state Lands.
1895 - creation of the Socialist Party.
Agricultural and livestock farming developed rapidly in the country.
Guatemala– Rufino Barrios laid the foundations of independence – dictatorship.
1895-96 – Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua united to form the Republic of Greater Central America (dictator Zelaya of Nicaragua).
Asia
Japan
1868-78 – “Meiji reforms”; The state is divided into 75 regions.
The centralization of banking capital proceeded faster than the centralization of industry. Monopoly capitalism was intertwined with the remnants of feudalism. This made Japan and Russia similar. 1878 – creation of local government in prefectures (regions).
1881 - the emperor's promise to create a parliament.
02/11/1889 – adoption of a constitution (based on the Prussian one); 2-chamber parliament: peers (upper house; 7 years) and House of Representatives (lower; 4 years); 1% of the population had the right to vote from the age of 25; The emperor is vested with extraordinary powers.
Foreign policy: 1874 - attack on Taiwan, 1872-79 - capture of. Ryukyu (China), 1875 - recognition of Japan by the USA, 1875. - annexation of the Kuril Islands (gave Sakhalin), 1876. – Korea – a country “open” to the Japanese (removed from Chinese control), 1894-95. – Sino-Japanese War (1894 – Japan organized a coup in Seoul (Korea), sank the Chinese fleet, defeated Chinese troops near Pyongyang); 1895. – reconciliation of Shimonoseki (independence of Korea, China transferred the islands of Liaodong, Taiwan, Penghu (Pescador) to Japan, China is open to Japanese trade).
1895 – 10-year weapons program (preparation for war with Russia).
1902 – agreement with England (interests in China).
1904-05 – Russian-Japanese War (for the first time an Asian country defeated a European one).
1910 – annexation of Korea; 1907-12 – agreements with Russia on the division of spheres of influence in Mongolia and Manchuria.
China
Last Thursday XIX century – the beginning of the development of capitalist relations.
1894-95 – Sino-Japanese War (defeat).
1897 – Germany captured Siaozhouwan Bay and Shandong Prefecture; France Suamjuwan Bay and Yunan Prefecture, Russia - Port Arthur, England - Weihai Port and the Yangtze Basin, Japan - Fuqizian Prefecture.
1884 - renunciation of official dominance in Central Vietnam; recognition of the French protectorate; war with France.
Social movements: “Chinese Renaissance Party” (Sun Yat-sen; for the overthrow of the monarchy); “Yihetuan” (“Boxers” - “Fist raised for peace and justice”) opposed the empire and foreigners; in 1899 - uprising, rebels took Beijing.
07.1900 – the beginning of the intervention of 8 states: Germany, Japan, Italy, England, USA, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary; 09/07/1901 - a peace treaty under which China expelled or executed the rebels, allowed foreign states to keep their troops, pay an indemnity of 33 million dollars, ban the import of weapons, provide benefits to foreigners of 50% of trade with England.
10/11/1911 – seizure of power in Wuhan by supporters of Sun Yat-sen; "Xinhai Revolution" - the overthrow of the monarchy.
1905 – Sun Yat-sen creates the “Union of Chinese Communities” (Tongminghai) on the basis of 2 organizations; publication of the newspaper "Mingbao" ("People's Newspaper").
12/25/1911 – return of Sun Yat-sen to China; The Assembly of the Nation declared China a republic; from 01/01/1912 – Sun Yat-sen – interim president; dual power: the Republic in the south and imperial power (Yuan Shikai) in the north (Nanjing).
Foreign countries tried to interfere in China's affairs. Uniting forces around Prime Minister Yuan Shikai. He forced 02/12/1912. the emperor's abdication; government formation. Faced with the threat of intervention, Sun Yat-sen is forced to transfer his powers to Yuan Shikai (the beginning of a reaction, the deterioration of the economy).
1912 – The United Union and liberal parties united to form the Kuomintang Party (Sun Yat-sen).
1913 The “second revolution” under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen was crushed by government troops with the support of foreign states in 03.1914. – convening of the Constitutional Council; adoption of the “New Constitution of China”; defeat of the Xinghai Revolution, dictatorship of Yuan Shikai.
India
India is a zone of investment for the English bourgeoisie (tea, hemp, cotton); since 1873 to 1883 trade increased by 60%.
Territory specialization: Bengal - hemp, Assam - tea, Bombay and central India - cotton, Punjab - millet.
1870-90 – famine (18 million people died).
1870 – revolt of the Punjabi Sikhs (guru Baba Ram Singh).
01/17/1971 – British Queen Victoria was declared Queen of India (India is an administrative unit of the empire); in 1877 – coronation; India is ruled by a viceroy.
1872-73 - uprising of the peasants of Patna and East Bengal.
1875 - Peasant uprising in Baroda.
1878 - Indian Press Law (under British control).
1879 – ban on possession of firearms.
1885 - uprising in the prefecture of Broce under the leadership of Lakh.
1885 – formation of the parties Indian National Congress (INC) and Muslim League (1906).
1890 – formation of the “left” wing in the INC (Bal Gangadhara Tilak) – formation of national identity within the framework of religion.
since 1880 newspaper in Pune "Kesar" ("Lion"); a supporter of the non-use of force, called for a boycott of British goods.
“God never gave India to foreign states.”
1901 - Viceroy Curzon issued a decree “Mine Laws” (all minerals from a 20-pound depth are mined under the control of the British).
1905 – increase in tuition fees by 2 times; closure of law faculties.
1905 - division of Bengal into 2 parts in order to weaken the liberation movement.
1906 – adoption by the INC of the programs “Swaraj” (“Own power”) and “Swadeshi” (“Own production”).
1908 - the congress of the INC approved the “Swaraj” and “Swadeshi” programs, India remains part of british empire with the right of self-government; The “left” wing (Talaq) was withdrawn from the INC - the formation of the Patriotic Party.
1906-08 - the revolutionary movement was brutally suppressed.
1909 – “The Law on Councils in India” - an increase in the number of self-government bodies, half (%) of the population could take part in elections, elections among religious communities for the purpose of strife on religious grounds.
1910 - unification of Bengal; transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
Iran
England ranked first in investments in Iran.
1872 - England received concepts for the use of oil mines, the construction of stone and railways.
1889 - English monopolist Reiter achieved the opening of the Tsar's Bank in Iran and received the right to issue paper money and freely use the country's mineral resources.
Iran's debt to England on the eve of the First World War was 9.6 million pounds sterling, and to Russia - 164 million rubles.
The influence of Russia on the royal court, the British on the appanage rulers of the south.
1905-11 – Iranian revolution against Anglo-Russian investors:
Stage I: 1905-07 tactics of passive opposition to the “best” (they sat in mosques, cemeteries) and demonstrations.
5.08.1906 – publication of a firman on the adoption of the Constitution (remained on paper); creation of the Mejlis (parliament).
9.09.1906 – Decree on holding elections to the Mejlis; 6 social strata received the right to participate in elections: Kojars (royal family), priests, merchants, landowners, peasants and artisans.
10/7/1906 - elections to the Majlis.
12/30/1906 – approval of the first part of the Constitution (the Shah approves laws, adopts and controls the execution of the budget; the Mejlis deals with economic agreements with foreigners).
01/8/1907 – death of Shah Muzaffariddin; Muhammad Alisha.
Stage II: 1907-11. abolition of benefits for aristocratic landowners, titles, decree on combating bribery, signing of the second part.
Constitution (democratic freedoms), recognition of Shiism by the state. Religion 06/23/1908 the Shah, with the support of the British and Russians, carried out a counter-revolutionary coup (dispersal and prohibition of the Mejlis, prohibition of the democratic press); the revolutionary movement moved to Tabriz; from 01 to 04.1909 - blockade of Tabriz by Russian troops - defeat.
07.1909 - overthrow of Muhammad Alishah; Ahmad; restoration of the Constitution; obtaining loans; influence on the foreign policy of Germany and the United States.
05.1911 – M. Shuster (USA) arrived in Iran to provide assistance in financial matters; tried to sow discord between England and Russia; relied on the Armenian dashnaks, the heads of the tribes.
12.1911 - with the support of Russia and England, internal counter-revolutionary forces produced state. coup; suppression of the revolution
The revolution was a transitional stage from the feudal-monarchical system to a constitutional monarchy.
08/31/1907 – Anglo-Russian agreement on dividing Iran into spheres of influence: Northern Iran - Russia, Central - neutral, Southern - England.
02.1912 – Iranian recognition of the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907. (about zones of influence); economic and political dependence on Russia.
Afghanistan
70s of the XIX century. – Afghanistan is becoming the cause of a dispute between Russia and Great Britain.
1873 – concentration of British troops on the border of Afghanistan; Sheralihan turned to Russia for help (Russia stationed a small military unit on the border); Consular mission of Stoletov.
1878 – the refusal to accept the English mission became the pretext for the start of the Second Anglo-Afghan War; capture of Kabul.
02.1879 – death of Sheralihan; Yakubhan is trying to maintain power with help. English - 05.1879 Gundamak Agreement.
(Afghanistan loses independence)
08.1789 - The uprising in Kabul was suppressed by the British.
1880 – Abdurakhman (arrived from the Turkestan General Government) surrounds Kabul and subjugates Northern Afghanistan; Kandahar remained with the British.
07/27/1880 – Sherelikhan’s son Ayubkhan defeated the British in Kandahar; defeat of the British in the war.
1880 - fight for the throne; Abdurakhman defeated Ayubkhan and established sole power.
1880-1901 - the reign of Abdurahman; “closed” economic policy, crisis, lack of production; created a police apparatus, introduced punishment for robbers, a single currency and measures of weight, and assigned benefits to religious figures.
1887 – determination of the Russian-Afghan border.
1893 - “Durand Agreement” on the Afghan-Indian border.
1901 – death of Abdurakhman; Habibullah - the fight against the British, trade relations with Russia.
1904 - Den's mission proposed an agreement on British control of foreign trade and railway construction.
1907 – signing the contract; Afghanistan is a zone of British interests; Russia has received some trade rights.
The movement of “Young Afghans” (“Young Afghans”) promoted education, science, the adoption of the Constitution, and equality of tribes. The movement was led by the editor of the newspaper “Sirozh-ul-Akhbori Afgonia” (Lamp of Afghan News) Muhammad Tarziy.
Türkiye
1873-75 - hunger.
The "Young Ottomans" ("Young Turks") movement advocated the overthrow of the Sultan. Newspaper "Ibrat" (Example).
05/22/1876 – by fatwa (permission) Abdulaziz was dethroned; Murod V was removed from the throne a short time later due to his health; Abdulhamid II – “the period of tyranny.”
12/23/1876 – adoption of the Constitution; A 2-chamber parliament (House of Daputates and Senate), a minority of citizens received the right to participate in elections, and the Sultan’s emergency powers.
1877-78 – Russian-Turkish war; dissolution of parliament.
1888 – Germany received the right to build the Izmir – Ankara railway.
1889 – cadets of the Istanbul Medical School The schools created the “Unity and Development” society.
1903 - Germany received the right to build the Baghdad railway.
1897 – reprisals against members of the “Unity and Development” society.
1902 – The Young Turks held their first conference in Paris; resolution to restore the Constitution.
1908 - an uprising led by officers from the Young Turks (Niyozbiy).
07/20/1908 - in the city of Monastir the restoration of the Constitution was proclaimed.
07/24/1908 – the Sultan signed a decree on the restoration of the Constitution; parliamentary elections (victory of the Young Turks) – victory of the revolution.
04/13/1909 – counter-revolutionary rebellion “Ittihodi Muhammad” (priests, landowners); abolition of parliament.
04/26/1909 - suppression of rebellion; on the throne is Mahmud V Rishod; restoration of parliament.
5.08.1912 - after the capture of Libya (Cerenaica and Tripolitania), the Freedom and Unity party created a state. coup and took power into their own hands
1912-13 – Turkish participation in the Balkan wars.
01.1913 - mutiny; power is again in the hands of the Young Turks; power is in the hands of the “troika” (Anvar Pasha (Enver Pasha) – leader, Ta’lat, Jamal); rapprochement with Germany; ideas of pan-Islamism and pan-Turkism.
Arabia
1899 - state revolution in Kuwait; Sheikh Mubarek recognized the protectorate of England.
1891 - uprising in Yemen against the Turks.
1902-53 - reign of Abdulaziz ibn Saud (Saudi Arabia) , liberation from the Turks.
1904 - The British, under the guise of establishing borders between Aden and Yemen, established control over the lands between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. IN Oman The British also established themselves.
Africa
Libya
1902-1912 - the reign of Ahmad from the family of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Senusi; repelling French attacks.
since 1912(11) - a colony of Italy.
Egypt
1869 - opening of the Suez Canal.
1871 – creation of the party “Hizb ul-Watan” (“Party of the Motherland”) - Jamaliddin al-Afghani; opposed the colonists, for the constitutional system; "Egypt for the Egyptians."
02/07/1882 – the Khedive (ruler) signed the Constitution; Parliament passes laws and controls the budget.
07/11/1882 - English landing in Alexandria.
08/07/1882 – the British captured the Suez Canal and Cairo; Having retained the formal power of the Ottoman Empire, the British took control of Egypt's finances.
12/29/1888 – Istanbul Convention: England, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Russia received the right to use the Suez Canal.
1902 - construction of the Aswan Dam.
1906 - The uprising of peasants in the village of Deshanvay against the British became the impetus that awakened national consciousness.
1907 - National Congress Party.
Sudan- a territory dependent on Egypt.
1881 – Muhammad Ahmad declared himself Mahdi (“savior”) and began a “holy war” against colonial dependence.
1883 and 1884 - defeat of British troops in Sudan.
1885 – independent state of the Mahdiyevs; capital Ordurman; Ethiopia's attack on Sudan.
1887 - Italy's attack on Ethiopia forced the Ethiopian ruler to negotiate with Sudan.
03.1889 - an agreement to end the war in favor of Sudan.
08.1889 - Anglo-Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdian army.
1898 - capture of a significant part of Sudan.
1904 - British rule over Sudan.
Tunisia– since 1883 colony of France.
Algeria- captured by the French in 1830, from 1834. – colony; 1912 - “Young Algeria”.
Morocco
1907 - offensive of French troops on Marrakech.
1912 - protectorate of France; part of the territory belongs to the Spaniards.
West Africa
Since 1883 – Germany conquers the Herero and Nama (Hottentot) tribes; 1904 – Herero uprising (Samuel Magarero), 1905. – Nama uprising (Hendrik Witboy).
German South West Africa
1892 – Western Sudan- colony of France; Samori Toure's struggle against the colonialists.
1883 – Belgium captured the river basin Congo.
1900 – the French captured the area around the lake Chad.
1904 - capture of the coast of the Gulf of Guinea - French Guinea.
East Africa
1879 - conquest by the British Zululand(Zulus).
1883 85 - war against France Madagascar; since 1898 - the colony.
1884 Germany captured Tanganyika.
1894 – Buganda(source of the Nile) became part of Uganda- Protectorate of England.
1895 - capture by the British Kenya.
1911 - capture by the British Zambia And Zimbabwe – Northern and Southern Rhodesia.
Zanzibar– divided between Germany, France and England.
Somalia– divided between England, France and Italy.
Ethiopia is the only African country that has retained its independence.
South Africa
1877 – England captured the Transvaal (Boers).
1899-1902 - the war between the British and the Boers.
1910 – Union of South Africa(Transvaal, Orange, Natal, Cape Republic) - dominion of England.
Colonies of European countries:
England– Sudan, Uganda, Bunoro, Kenya, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Zululand (retained local forms of government).
France– Chad, Nigeria, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Madagascar, Morocco, Western Sudan, Tunisia, Algeria (established new governance arrangements).
Germany– Togo, Cameroon, Tanganyika, Namibia, German South-West Africa.
Belgium– Congo (partially France and Portugal).
Portugal– Angola, Mozambique.
Science and technology
Transport:
70s XIX century – the first stage of development of steam locomotive construction has ended; Cast iron rails were replaced by steel ones.
80s XIX century - G. Daimler and K. Benz created the first car.
1892 – R. Diesel invented the internal combustion engine; in 1897 – the engine is built.
1895 - England's first tram.
Electricity:
1862 – the principle of a four-stroke engine by A. Boche Roche; in 1876 used by N. Otto; appreciated at the Paris Exhibition of 1878.
1876 – N. Yablochkov’s arc lamp – electric candle.
1879 – T. Edison the new kind incandescent lamps; 1882 - built the first thermal power plant in New York.
1880 - YES. Lachnikov proved the possibility of transmitting electricity through wires.
1869 – Z. Gramm invented a generator with a ring armature.
G. Ferraris developed an alternating current transformer; N. Tesla created 2-phase and multi-phase electric motors.
1891 – 175 km of power lines were launched in Germany.
Shipbuilding and construction:
1909 – ships with a displacement of 20,000 tons.
Construction:
The French gardener Monet invented reinforced concrete; since 1884 they began to study it in Germany.
1889 – Eiffel Tower (312 m).
The use of steel beams in the construction of bridges (at the end of the 19th century in Scotland, the Forth Bridge, length 2133 m, height 47.5 m).
Art Nouveau style in construction - the use of ceramics and facing materials.
Metallurgy:
70s XIX century – “Bessemer method” - separation of metal from phosphorus in steel production.
Sidney Thomas - turning iron smelted from phosphorus ore into steel.
1880 – construction of open-hearth furnaces with a volume of 10-15 tons.
1880 – L.Mond – a method for producing pure nickel.
1886 – P. Heroux (France) and C. Holler (USA) separated aluminum electrolytically.
1907 – A. Wilm (Germany) invented duralumin for aircraft.
Beginning XX century – L. Baekeland found a way to produce plastic.
1910 – Hunter is a method of obtaining pure titanium.
Mechanical engineering:
The electric welding method was first used by Thompson; N.N. Benardossa is a carbon electrode for electric welding.
1888 - N, G. Slavyanov - electric welding with a metal electrode rather than with a coal one.
O. Golvart - gas turbines, M. Nkolsky - turbine engines for aircraft.
1903 - Wright brothers' plane.
Ch. Babidzh - computers, programming on sewing machines - J. Jacquard, automation of metallurgy - G. Kirchhoff.
L. Mperri - automatic control of aircraft, N.I. Kibalchich - rocket plane.
Oil refining:
1874 – A. Tavrizov – oil refining apparatus.
1876 – airplane - A.F. Mozhaisky.
1882 – Mendeleev – the first cube for oil refining.
1882 – unmanned airplane by G. Philipps.
1885 – in Baku – the first battery of cubes.
1885 – 2-cylinder Daimler engine.
80s XIX century – O.S. Kostovich is a lightweight internal combustion engine with a carburetor running on gasoline.
1887 - “rational engine”, in cat. when compressed, the fuel spontaneously ignited.
1902 – flight of the Wright brothers on a motorized glider (59 sec.).
1876 – A. Bell – telephone.
1877 – Edison – phonograph (sound recording).
1878 – in New Havana (USA) – the first telephone exchange.
1886-89 – Hertz proved the existence and propagation of electromagnetic waves.
1895 – A.S. Popov - radio receiver.
1895 – Lumiere brothers - cinematography; the first cinema in Paris.
1896 – Popov – telegraph communication.
1897 – G. Marconi – wireless telegraph.
Military sphere:
70s XIX century - a rapid-fire gun with a powder flask.
1884 – Vele – pyroxine powder without smoke; Mendeleev in Russia.
1888 – Nobel – a new explosive – nitroglycerin gunpowder (ballietite).
1893 – France – rapid-fire self-propelled gun.
R. Godard - work on creating rockets.
Mathematics and Astronomy:
N.I. Lobachevsky, B. Riemann, E. Beltrami, F. Klein – non-Euclidean geometry.
1888 – the first calculating machine by G. Hollerith; was used in the 1890 US Census.
Patterns of proper motion of stars - J. Kametein (1904) and K. Schwarschild
Mechanics:
G. Helmholtz - the doctrine of vortex motion of fluid
N.P. Petrov – hydrodynamic theory of friction
NOT. Zhukovsky - substantiated the formula for determining the lift of a wing
I.V. Meshchersky – dynamics of variable mass (for rocket flight)
K.E. Tsiolkovsky - proved the possibility of using rockets for interplanetary flights
M. Faraday - the science of electricity
1885 - James C. Maxwell - theory of the "electromagnetic field of light"
A. Becquerel, P. Curie, M. Shklodovskaya-Curie, F. Saddi, E. Rusrford, N. Bohr - studied the phenomenon of radioactivity, created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom.
A. Einstein – theory of relativity; private - in 1905, general - in 1916.
B. X-rays – “X rays” passing through objects; X-ray machine; Nobel Prize.
P.N. Lebedev – electromagnetic theory of light.
D. Rayleigh and W. Ramsay - inert gases.
P. Griss – nitrogen paints.
1881 – M.G. Kucherov – hydration reaction.
M. Berthelot, J. Thomsen, N.N. Beketov, V.F. Luginin – thermochemistry.
1887 – S. Arrnius – theory of electrolytic dissociation.
Natural history:
G. Mendeg – mechanism of heredity; genetics.
T. Schwan - cellular structure of organisms.
I.P. Pavlov - the doctrine of the higher nervous system and conditioned reflexes (Nobel Prize).
I.V. Michurin - the possibility of crossing plants and obtaining new species.
C. Darwin - evolutionary development.
Microbiology:
L. Pasteur - laid the scientific basis for the production of beer and wine, discovered microbes, vaccination against anthrax and rabies; basics of immunology.
1875 – F.A. Bream is a microbe that causes amoebic dysentery.
L. Pasteur - in 1881 anthrax vaccination; in 1885 - against rabies.
1882-83 – R. Koch – a bacillus that causes tuberculosis and cholera.
F. Löfler is the causative agent of diphtheria.
1880 – K. Ebert – a microbe that causes cholera (typhoid fever).
1907 – P. Ehrlich – the basics of chemotherapy.
Culture
Philosophy
F. Nietzsche - under the influence of Zoroastrianism, wrote “As Spoke Zarathustra”, the ideas of raising a strong personality.
O. Spengler - opposed “Eurocentrism”; "The Decline of Europe".
Freud, the founder of the theory of psychoanalysis, substantiated the possibility of analyzing the subconscious.
An opinion arose that the degree of industrial development is a criterion for the development of society.
During this period, the ideas of fascism and communism were established.
Literature
R. Kipling “Sadness over the white man’s duty” - the superiority of the “white man” and his willingness to enlighten the “colored” peoples.
P. Loti and M. Varres (French) justified the colonial system.
Detlev von Lilienkronn - ideas of chauvinism.
R. Haggard “Moctezuma’s Daughter”, “King Solomon’s Mines” - a denunciation of colonialism.
Gabriele Annuncio idealized the "strong personality" of capitalist society.
In France, Sarah Bernhardt worked at the Comedy Française theater.
The play based on the novel by E. Zola “Thérèse Raquin” was staged in many theaters in Europe; actor Eleonor Duse.
B. Show “Unpleasant Pieces” with unusual lyrical digressions.
G. Ibsen - themes of the falsity of bourgeois marriage, humiliation of women in the family, moral laws.
G. Hauptmann - the play “The Weavers” was repeatedly banned.
R. Strauss “Solomea”, “Electra”, “Song of Flowers” - continued the traditions of Motsakr.
G. Mahler “Song of Dead Children”, “The Boy’s Magic Horn” - continued the traditions of Beethoven.
A.M. Scriabin is an innovator.
S.G. Rachmaninov - composer, pianist, conductor; theme of the Motherland.
Painting:
Impressionism (impression) is a style in art that depicts impressions from observations in its pure form; E. Manet, C. Monet, O. Renoir, C. Pizarro.
Realism – P. Cezanne, P. Gauguin, V. Van Gogh.
Zhen Boniyan (Chinese) – drawing on silk.
Auguste Rodin - sculpture "The Thinker".
Literature:
Critical realism: F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, N.A. Nekrasov, B, Shaw, R. Dario (Nicaragua).
Guy de Maupassant - “Life”, “Darling”, “Mont-Oriol”, “Dear Friend” - problems of French society.
E. Verhaern (Belgian) – poems “Catastrophe”, “Black Torch”, “Evening”, “Raving Field”, “Octopus Cities” about the suffering of the working people.
G. Wells - science fiction “The Time Machine”, “The Invisible Man”.
T. Dreiser - a trilogy about the American monopolist Cowperwood “Financier”, “Titan”, “Stoic”.
Romain Roland – the disintegration of French and German society “Jean Christophe”.
D. Galsworthy - “The Forsyte Saga”, “The Island of Hypocrisy”.
G. Mann - satire; "Loyal Citizen", Empire trilogy.
A. France - ridiculed the vices of the Third Republic "On the White Stone", "Penguin Island".
Mark Twain – article “Lynching the United States”, definitions: “A senator is a person who makes laws in his free time from prison”, “Servants of the people are persons elected to their positions to distribute bribes.”
Humanism: Rabindranath Tagore (Indian call for independence), Lu Xing (Chinese), A. Ryunosuke (Japanese).
Democratic literature:
G. Beecher Stowe "Uncle Tom's Cabin", "The Tale of Dred, the Cursed Swamp."
D. London - 19 novels; collection “Daughter of Snow” - the theme of the north, “Love of Life”, “On the Shores of Sacramento”.
Victor Hugo “The Scary House”, “Les Miserables”, “The Year 93”, “The Man Who Laughs”.
Jules Verne - science fiction.
Japanese writers: Shimei Yutabatei “Floating Clouds”, Roku Tokitomi “Kurosawa”, “It’s Better Not to Live”, Naoe Kinoshito “Pillar of Fire” - against feudal remnants, foreign influence.
The Chinese poet Hua Rongxiang called on the people to fight against foreigners, Li Baojia “Our Officials”, U. Voyano “For 20 Years”, Liu Ye “The Journey of Lao San”, Zhen Pu “Flowers in the Angry Sea”.
India: Bengali Shortchandra Chottopadhyay, Mahammad Iqbal.
Naturalism is the depiction of life in sharp artistic colors.
Emile Zola 20-volume series “Rougon-Macquart” - the period of the Second Empire; “Germinal”, “Destruction” - the peak of creativity.
Luigi Capuan and Giovanni Vega (Italian).
Stephen Crane (USA) “Street Girl Maggie,” “Bloody Symbol of Courage.”
Frank Norris (USA) “Octopus”, “Whirlpool”.
Decadence - the course of a period of falling into crisis (late XIX - early XX), a mood of hopelessness, disgust for life; "Art for art's sake." The attempt to combine science with religion and idealistic philosophy, the worship of violence caused a mood of decline. Jacques Moreas called the Symbolists “singers of decadence.”
“Cursed Poets” - P. Velen, A. Rimbaud (“Summer in Hell”, “Clarity”; died in Africa in poverty), S. Mallarmé.
Rainer Maria Rilke "The Church Book of Prayers."
Oscar Wilde "Stories", "The Picture of Dornan Gray".
Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgian) brought man face to face with the laws of nature.
I World War(1914-18)
Formation of military blocs:
05/20/1882 – Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), 05/23/1915. Italy left the Triple Alliance.
5.09.1915(14) – creation of the Quadruple Alliance (“Union of the Four”) (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey).
04.1904 – Entente (England, France), 08/31/1907. – entry of Russia – Triple Entente; 26.04. 1915 - entry of Italy.
Cause of war: territorial redistribution of the world.
Reason: murder 07/28/1914 in Sarajevo, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand.
For all countries except Belgium and Serbia, this war was an aggressive one.
The plan for a lightning war was developed by General von Schlieffen.
08/03/1914 - attack on Belgium, Holland and France; France was saved from occupation by the offensive of Russian troops.
5-12.09.1914 – Battle of the Marne River (2 million people) victory of the Anglo-French troops.
October 1914 – Turkey’s performance on the side of Germany; attack on Russia; opening of 350 km of the Transcaucasian front.
1915 - “positional warfare”.
1915 – The United States signed an agreement with the Entente countries to provide a loan of 500 million. dollars (debt amounted to 10 billion dollars)
01/18/1915 – Japan demanded from China the province of Shandong (German), to extend the lease for 99 years of Port Arthur, South Manchuria and Andung-Muklen
01/19/1915 - Battle of the Dardanelles; defeat of the Anglo-French fleet.
spring 1915 – the “great retreat” of the Russian army from Poland, the Baltic states, Western Belarus and part of Western Ukraine.
05/07/1915 - sinking of the English passenger ship Lusitania (2000 passengers) by submarines.
04/25/1915 -in the battle of Ypres, the Germans used chemical weapons (mustard gas - mustard gas (chlorine)).
09/15/1915 – entry of Bulgaria into the war; 10/14/1915 - attack on Serbia.
1916 - “the great massacre of nations.”
21.02.-21.12.1916 - “Verdun Massacre”; 2 million 260 thousand people died; The decisive role was played by the breakthrough of the Russian army by A.A. Brusilov.
summer 1916 – Battle of the Somme River; The British used tanks for the first time.
1916 - England and France signed a secret agreement on the post-war division of Russia (England - the Caucasus and Central Asia, France - Ukraine).
08/17/1916 - Romania's entry into the war.
03.1917 - The British occupied Baghdad.
04.1917 – “The Massacre of Nivelles” the French were unable to break through the defense line on the Western Front.
04/06/1917 – The United States declared war on Germany (it had been neutral since the beginning of the war).
10.1917 - defeat of the Italian army near Caporetto.
11.1917 - In the battle with the British, Germany used a flamethrower for the first time.
12/15/1917 - peace treaty between Russia and Austria-Hungary.
3.03.1918 – peace treaty between Russia and Germany (Brest-Litovsk Treaty); Russia came out of the war, abandoned the Baltic states, Poland, Finland and Ukraine were recognized as independent; Caucasian Kars, Ardagan and Batumi were transferred to Turkey; reparations 6 billion marks.
01/08/1918 – “Wilson’s Peace Program” - a draft map of the world after the end of World War II.
03.1918 - the last offensive of German troops.
07/18/1918 - Counter-offensive of French troops.
09/18/1918 Bulgaria was the first to withdraw from the Fourth Alliance from the war.
10.1918 German General E. Ludendorff is trying to conclude an honorable peace; government of Max of Baden (Prince).
10/9/1918 - revolution in Germany.
10/30/1918 - Surrender of Turkey.
November 3, 1918 - surrender of Austria-Hungary.
11/11/1918 - Ebert’s government in the Compiègne Forest at the headquarters of General Foch signed the surrender.
38 countries took part in World War I, 10 million people were killed, 20 million people were killed. were injured, the main participating countries lost 1/3 of their national wealth..
Abolitionism is a movement for the liberation of blacks from slavery.
Anarchism is a doctrine that recognizes only the desire and will of the individual, as a leader, and rejects any power and political system.
Ansar is the name of one of the classes of companions of the Prophet Muhammad. They beat members of the Medina tribes Aws and Khazraj, who helped the Muslim settlers and converted to Islam.
Antisemitism is a reactionary movement of racial chauvinism and bourgeois nationalism directed against Jews.
Best is a passive form of seated resistance.
“Eastern Question” - in the end of the 18th century. interest of England, France, Austria and Russia in Turkish possessions.
Home Rule is a legislative act granting autonomy to Ireland.
Demobilization – release from military service.
Demographic state - the state of the population of a continent, country and world (population growth, determined by the ratio of births and deaths).
A dispatch is an urgent diplomatic message.
Doctrine is a principle of political leadership.
A Dominion is a self-governing semi-colony.
Eurocentrism is the idea of Europeanization of all cultures. Land rent is a type of income systematically received from landowners for the use of land.
Immigrant (lat. moving) is a person who comes from a given state to another for permanent or long-term residence.
Property qualification is a citizen’s ownership of property to a certain extent, which gives the right to participate in elections.
Intervention is intervention, in order to conquer the territory of another state and establish its own power there, in the internal affairs of the state using force.
Irredentism is a nationalist movement that advocates the union of neighboring territories inhabited by Italians with Italy.
Capital – investments; all funds and savings that bring profit to the owner. A cost that multiplies itself.
Cartel - (Italian paper, document) a structure operating on the basis of an agreement between independent companies, firms in the same industry on the total volumes of production and sales, prices, trading markets, the share of each participation, etc.
Clericalism is a religious and political movement that seeks to ensure the supremacy of the church and priests in the social, political and cultural life society.
A coalition is a temporary military-political alliance of 2 or several states, created for joint action against one or more states.
Comprador is part of the bourgeoisie of backward and dependent states, engaged in mediation between foreign capital and the domestic market.
A convention is one of the types of multilateral international treaties.
Contribution is an amount forcedly paid by the defeated state in favor of the winning state on the basis of a reconciliation agreement.
Concern – (participation, interest) a large enterprise of united production facilities based on common interests (unification of enterprises in various industries under common financial control).
Counter-Reformation is a political and religious movement in Europe in the 16th-17th centuries under the leadership of the Pope.
Concession is an agreement for the issuance of state authorities under certain conditions of permission to operate natural resources, ground objects.
A corporation is an association of monopoly shareholders.
The Ku Klux Klan is a racial terrorist organization.
Kulturkampf - struggle for culture (in Germany).
Latifundia is a large land property.
A manifesto is a written statement from the government in connection with a very important event.
Mahdi (directed by Allah) is a prophet in Islam who will establish justice on earth before the end of the world.
The metropolis is an aggressive state that occupies foreign countries and turns them into its colonies.
Mission – high duty, responsible task; representatives of one state sent on a special mission to another state.
Monopoly – (Greek) sole domination in a certain sphere of the economy (establishment of absolute control over an industry or several sectors of the economy).
A note is an official written act sent by the government of one state to the name of the government of another state.
Oligarchy - (Greek: Power of minorities) concentration of economic and political power in the hands of owners of large capital.
“Labor aristocracy” - skilled workers who made up in the beginning. XX century 1/3 of the total number of workers.
A reservation is a territory allocated in a state for the forcible placement of part of the indigenous population that remains alive.
Recruitment is the recruitment of soldiers into the army, one from each peasant and township yard.
Segregation is the forced division of the population into racial groups in some states.
Separatism is the desire to separate.
Syndicate - (Latin: Trusted representative) an association of enterprises that produce products of the same type (products are not sold by the manufacturer independently, but as the property of the syndicate)
Xinghai (Chinese) – Chinese “year”; The Xinghai Revolution lasted exactly a year.
The “middle class” is a social stratum that includes people of “liberal professions” - engineers, designers, doctors, teachers, officers, lawyers with a moderate financial situation, providing stability to society.
“Lynching” is the punishment without trial of blacks and participants in the democratic movement in the United States.
A treaty is an international treaty or agreement.
A trust is an association of enterprises that participate in production and trade not at their own discretion, but on the basis of a decision of central management (the owner is deprived of any independence and is only a shareholder).
An ultimatum is a demand from one state presented to another state.
Urbanization is the increasing role of cities and the weight of the urban population in the life of society.
Federalists are supporters of granting autonomy to the provinces in Argentina and other states.
Philosophy is a subject about the general laws of nature, the development of society and thinking.
Finance is a relationship that creates targeted monetary savings (funds) associated with their storage, distribution and consumption.
A faction is a group of MPs belonging to a political party.
Extraterritorial law is the right to immunity of citizens of one country in another country.
Juncker (German) - large landowner - landowner.
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Nnewtime(beg.XVIV. - 1918G.)
Iperiod of modern history (beginningXVI - 60sXIXcenturies)
The period covers the time of formation of an industrial (capitalist) society in Western Europe and North America, giving a person the opportunity for the most complete self-realization. During this period, people invented the motor, car, steamship, steam locomotive, railway, diesel, open-hearth furnace, aviation, telephone, radio, television, electric light. In Asia, traditional (feudal) society continued to dominate. The land was in the hands of the state (monarch), there was no principle of primogeniture (seniority). These factors slowed down the processes of transformation of handicraft industries into factories, consolidation of farms, concentration of capital in one hand, and, consequently, the development of capitalism.
Historical sources of the period: F. de Monluze “On the French Monarchy”, F. Mile “History of the French Revolution”,
A. de Lomartin “History of the Girondins”, Iselli “On the History of Humanity”, F. Schiller “History of the Thirty Years’ War”,
J. Meslier “History of Louis XVI”, Voltaire “History of Russia during the period of Peter the Great”, G. Gallom “History of England from Henry VII to George II (1485-1760)”, G. Leo “History of the Italian states”, N.M. . Karamzin “History of the Russian State”, J. Bancroft “History of the United States”.
Istage- XVI-XVIIIbb.
During this period, the prerequisites for the emergence of capitalism were formed. Bourgeois revolutions took place in Western Europe and North America.
The reasons for the great geographical discoveries: 1) the development of commodity production required additional markets for raw materials;
2) the need for additional funds and the thirst for enrichment; 3) the control of the Ottoman Empire over international trade routes (Silk and through the Mediterranean Sea) forced them to look for new routes to Asia.
The initiators of great geographical discoveries were the Portuguese and Spaniards.
The Portuguese in the 20-30s of the 15th century. discovered Madeira, the Canary and Azores islands, Guinea, the Cape Verde Islands, and Sierra Leone.
Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) in 1468 circled the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) and entered the Indian Ocean, but did not reach India.
Christopher Columbus (Spain) 10/12/1492 landed on the island of San Salvador, discovered Haiti and Cuba. He believed that he had sailed to India and discovered America; the first viceroy of the captured lands Vasco da Gama in 1498. opened the sea route to India across the Atlantic Ocean.
Amerigo Vespucci, as part of a Portuguese expedition (1499-1501), explored the shores of Brazil and came to the conclusion that the open lands were not India. He called them the New World.
P. Toscanelli in the 15th century. compiled a map of the world, but made a mistake in determining the length of the equator by 12 thousand km. Scientists subsequently called this mistake “a great mistake that led to a great discovery.”
In 1507 M. Waldseemüller proposed to name the new continent America in honor of Vespucci.
In 1515 In Germany, the first globe was created, on which the New World was named America. Since 1569 the name appeared on the maps.
In 1519 Nunez Balloba founded Panama, the first city on the American continent.
Ferdinand Magellan in 1519-22. traveled around the world, proving that the Earth is round. Died in the Philippine Islands.
In 1605 Spaniard Luis Vaez de Torres discovered Australia.
Portugal: Sunda and Moluccas Islands in Asia, Brazil (discovered by Cabral in 1500):
Spain: 1510 - Cuba, 1529 - Philippines; Cortez conquered the Mayans (Mexico) before 1679, in the 20-40s of the 16th century. Colombia was conquered
Ecuador, Peru (Inca; Pissaro), Bolivia, later Chile and Argentina. 1510 - mid. XVII century - politics of conquest (conquest).
1512 - a law prohibiting the turning of Indians into slaves. For governance, 2 viceroyalties were established:
New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean) and Peru (all of South America, except Brazil).
England: in the 16th century. - Ireland and Scotland, in North America - Virginia (1607). 1600 - founding of the East India Company.
France: - XVII century - Canada
Holland - 1652 Cape Colony in South Africa
The consequences of the great geographical discoveries: 1) world trade arose: 2) cocoa, tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes, corn were brought to Europe from America, tea, coffee, oranges from Asia; 3) Genoa and Venice lost their importance as centers of trade; world trade was concentrated in the ports of the Netherlands (the world center is Antwerp), England, Portugal (Lisbon) and Spain (Seville).
Socio-economic changes in Western Europe:
The emergence of new nobles - feudal lords who use hired labor and are engaged in trade and entrepreneurship;
K ser. XVII century merchants-negotiators and bankers began to represent the highest stratum of society;
From the 17th century the construction of covered markets (the first in London and Paris); daily markets;
The emergence of trading companies;
The emergence of manufacture - production based on the division of manual labor;
Improvement of production technology (blast furnace, water engine, watches);
Improvement of military affairs (mortars (XVI century), muskets (XVII), pistols, grenades, explosive shells, rifle butts)
Loss of the meaning of chivalry as a standard of courage.
Reformation of the Catholic Church - the emergence of Protestantism (officially since 1555 (1517))
In the Czech Republic - Jan Hus. Hussite wars 1419-34. (Jan Zizka)
In Germany - in 1517. Martin Luther put forward the appeal “95 Theses”, condemning indulgences, submission to the Rissky Pope, and the enrichment of churches. Peasants' support for him resulted in the Peasants' War of 1524-26. against serfdom, but not for the elimination of feudal orders, but for personal freedom (Thomas Münzer);
1526 - The German Reichstag passed a law on the right of princes to choose their religion. In 1529 the law was repealed, the “Protestation” was signed by 5 princes and a number of cities.
Since 1555 The princes received the right from the Pope to choose the Lutheran religion.
In Switzerland - John Calvin; Geneva is Protestant Rome.
Calvinism. In England, Henry VIII separated the church from Rome (the Anglican Church). In Denmark and Sweden, the reformation was carried out by kings with the support of nobles.
In France - Huguenots. To fight the Protestants in 1540. the Jesuit order (“Society of Jesus”) was created; founder - Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola.
Renaissance (Renaissance).
Origins of the Renaissance: ancient (Ancient Greece and Rome) art and scientific thought of Central Asia. The Renaissance originated in Italy.
Literature: Shakespeare (“Hamlet”, “Othello”, “Romeo and Juliet”), Miguel de Cervantes (“Don Quixote”), Lope de Vega (1562-1635)
Humanist writers: Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) - “Book of Songs”, “Letters in Verse”
Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406)
Thomas More (1478-1535) - “The Golden Book on the best structure of the state and on the new island of Utopia”; "utopia" - a non-existent place
Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) - “Gargantua and Pantagruel”
Fine arts: Leonardo da Vinci - artist, poet, architect, sculptor, musician, engineer-inventor; called painting “the princess of the arts” (“Madonna and Child”, wall painting “The Last Vespers”);
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) "Sistine Madonna"
Michelangelo Buonarroti - sculptor, painter, architect, military engineer, poet (“David”); from 1546 he led the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral and the Capitol in Rome
Albrecht Durer (German) - artist, engineer, architect, expert on ancient languages, poet (engravings, portraits)
Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch) - portrait, landscape, still life (“Return of the Prodigal Son”)
Diego Velazquez (Spanish) - “Painter of Truth” (“Spinners”)
El Greco (Spanish) - “The Holy Family”, “Portrait of an Unknown”
Science: N. Copernicus (1473-43) proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun and its axis (heliocentric system) in the book “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres” (1543); in 1616 the Inquisition banned the teachings of Copernicus
D. Bruno (1548-1600) in his work “The Philosophy of Cry” put forward a theory about the infinity of the world; burned at the stake by the Inquisition; on the grave it is written: “He demanded freedom of thought for all peoples, and was executed for this demand” (“He raised his voice for freedom of thought for all peoples and went to his death for this freedom”)
G. Galileo (1564-1642) built the first telescope, discovered mountains on the Moon, satellites of Jupiter, spots on the Sun and phases of Venus; under torture of the Inquisition he was forced to renounce his views; rehabilitated today time of John Paul II.
John Locke developed the doctrine of the rights of man to life, liberty and property; created the doctrine of the division of state power into legislative and executive.
Inventions: windmill, lathe, pump, use of coal, explosion method in ore mining, with gray. XVI century typography.
Netherlands
State on the territory of modern. Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland and parts of France; consisted of 17 provinces; center - Antwerp; depending on Spain. "Lowlands"
1566 - the uprising against Spanish rule coincided with the struggle for church reform (Protestantism); attempt to suppress the uprising by the Spanish Duke of Alba "guez" ("ragamuffins") - partisans.
1572 - proclamation of William of Orange as ruler of the northern territories (the south remained with Spain).
1573 - Alba left the Netherlands; only the south of the country remained with Spain.
1579 - creation of the “Union of Utrecht” (unification of 7 provinces) to fight the Spaniards; Dutch Republic.
1609 - recognition by Spain of the independence of the Dutch Republic; capital - Amsterdam; the first bourgeois state.
1652 - Cape Colony in South Africa.
England
XVI century for England this is the reformation, the strengthening of absolutism and the establishment of dominance at sea.
Henry VIII (Tudor) subordinated the entire country to a single center - London (absolutist monarchy), reformed the church - proclaimed himself the head of the church and confiscated 2/3 of church lands.
His daughter Maria (1553-58) tried to carry out a counter-reformation (returning the country to Catholicism).
1554 - restoration of the power of the Pope in England.
Mary's repressive policy brought Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to the throne. Her main task was to strengthen the unity of England and the struggle for supremacy at sea. In 1588 The English fleet defeated the "Invincible Armada" of Spain.
With the death of Elizabeth, the Tudor dynasty ended. James VI - Stuart.
1600 - opening of the first exchange.
1628 - Parliament got the king to sign the “Bill of Rights” and the “Petition of Rights”, prohibiting the introduction of new taxes and imprisonment without trial; dispersal of parliament - establishment of the absolute power of the king.
3.11.1640 - convening of parliament - the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution; dissolution of extraordinary courts and the “Privy Council” of the king, restriction of the ecclesiastical court, release of political prisoners.
1641 - “The Great Remonstrance” - a list of the king’s abuses and the political demands of parliament.
1642 - civil war between supporters of the monarchy and the bourgeoisie.
1643 - the conclusion of an alliance between the English Parliament and Scotland.
07/14/1645 - Battle of Naseby (defeat of the king’s troops).
1649 - abolition of royal power (execution of Charles I); 05/19/1649 proclamation of the republic; unicameral parliament; head of the executive branch (Council of State) - Oliver Cromwell; conquest of Scotland and Ireland.
1653 - dispersal of parliament; Cromwell - Lord Protector (dictator).
1660 - restoration of the monarchy (Charles II).
1685 - King James II tried to restore Catholicism.
1688 - palace coup “Glorious Revolution” by William of Orange (Holland) - overthrow of James II, adoption of the “Declaration of Rights”, England - limited monarchy.
1701-14 - war with France for the Spanish throne; capture of Gibraltar.
1707 - Union of England and Scotland - Great Britain.
since 1716 - Parliamentary term of office is 6 years.
XVIII century - “the second hundred years war” - the confrontation between England and France.
XVIII century - industrial revolution - the transition from manual labor to machine labor.
1733 - John Kay invented the flying shuttle.
1765 - James Hargreaves invented the periodic spinning jenny; D. Wyatt - steam engine.
1767 E. Cartwright invented the mechanical loom. Abraham Derby invented new methods of casting iron, Abraham Derby - his son introduced coke blast furnace smelting, Abraham Derby - his grandson - in 1779. built a bridge from cast iron parts.
1774 D. Wilkinson invented the lathe.
1788 - the first cast iron pipes.
1814 - steam locomotive D. Stephenson.
The “Luddites” were a labor movement that destroyed machine tools and saw them as the cause of their troubles.
France
II half.XVI century. - “Revolt of the crokans” (“rodents”) - 40 thousand peasants opposed the arbitrariness of tax farmers and officials.
The Estates General (parliament) did not play the same role in France as in England. From 1614 throughout the 17th century they were not convened. There were 17 regional parliaments overseeing the courts. The Parisian Parliament had great influence; it controlled 1/3 of the country and could appoint a regent if the heir was a minor.
In France, Protestantism (Huguenots) spread in the south, while the north (the king) remained Catholic. The massacre of the Huguenots, organized by a supporter of the king, the Duke of Guise, became the cause of the War of Religion (1562-98 - 32 years).
08/24/1572 - “Bartholomew’s Night” (mass murder of Huguenots). Prohibition of Protestantism.
1589 - assassination of King Henry III. On the throne is the leader of the Protestants - Henry of Navarre - Henry IV (Bourbon dynasty), who converted to Catholicism. Strengthening personal power.
1598 - Edict of Nantes (state religion - Catholicism, Huguenots have the right to worship; religious truce).
1610-43 - the reign of Louis XIII and Cardinal (First Minister) Richelieu - the establishment of the sole power of the king.
1643-1715 - Louis XIV (“The State is me”) - absolute monarchy; cardinal and first minister Mazarin.
1756-63 - The Seven Years' War between England and France for the Austrian inheritance and colonies; 1763 - ousting France from Canada.
05/04/1789 - convening of the Estates General by Louis XVI in order to increase taxes.
06/17/1789 Deputies from the 3rd estate established a new parliament - the National (Constituent) Assembly.
07/14/1789 - storming of the Bastille; the king recognized the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly; power in the hands of the Paris Commune; a constitutional monarchy; The French Revolution. Parties: royalists - supporters of the monarchy; Girondins - moderate liberals, supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Jacobins are supporters of the republic.
1789 - adoption of the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights; elimination of feudal relations; confiscation of land from the church.
September 1791 - adoption of the Constitution; aggression of Austria, Spain and Great Britain.
08/10/1792 - uprising in Paris; elections to the new parliament - the National Convention.
09/21/1792 France is a republic.
Rouget de Lisle wrote the "Battle Song of the Army of the Rhine" which is still the anthem of France.
01/21/1793 - execution of the king.
06/2/1793 - as a result of the uprising, power passed from the Girondins to the Jacobins; Committee of Public Safety - Robespierre; establishment of a revolutionary dictatorship.
1793 - adoption of a new Constitution, which consolidated the abolition of feudal relations; Law “On Suspicious Persons”.
1794 - expulsion of interventionists from the country.
07/27/1794 -overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship; execution of Robespierre.
1795 - new Constitution; the Girondins are in power; executive power - Directory (1795-99).
11/19/1799 - coup d'état; power in the hands of 3 consuls led by Napoleon; elimination of all democratic freedoms
Russia
The unification of Russian lands continued under Vasily III (1505-33). Pskov, Smolensk, and the Ryazan principality were annexed.
20-20s XVI century - creation of a single centralized state. Moscow becomes the capital of the Russian state.
Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84) - the first Russian Tsar, crowned by Metropolitan Macarius in 1547.
1547 - The elected Rada is an unofficial government.
1549 - convening of the Zemsky Sobor - the first representative assembly; Russia is an estate-representative monarchy.
1550 - the new Code of Law limited the rights of the boyars and established self-government bodies.
1552 - conquest of the Kazan Khanate.
1556 - conquest of the Astrakhan Khanate.
1582 - conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
1558-83 - The Livonian War - the loss of almost the entire Baltic coast.
1565-72 - oprichnina - a special royal possession on which noblemen loyal to the tsar settled; guardsmen - the tsar's personal guard, a punitive body against the boyars (Malyuta Skuratov).
1584-98 - reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor (the last of the Rurikovichs; the dynasty ruled for 700 years).
1598 - The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov as Tsar.
1605 - death of Godunov; the beginning of the Troubles; False Dmitry I (monk Grigory Otrepiev) at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian army entered Moscow.
1606-10 - Tsar - Boyar Vasily Shuisky.
1608 - False Dmitry II (“Tushino thief”).
1609 - capture of Moscow by Polish troops.
1611-12 - the people's militia led by the townsman Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky; liberation of Moscow.
1613 - The Zemsky Sobor elected a tsar - 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (Romanov dynasty until 1917).
1645-76 - the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.
1649 - The “Conciliar Code” abolished feudal fragmentation, legalized serfdom (abolished the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another), noble lands turned into patrimony (law of inheritance).
1667-71 - uprising of S. Razin.
In the 17th century manufactories appeared in Russia (the first in ferrous metallurgy), and monetary rent appeared. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan played a large role in foreign trade; the British and Dutch acted as intermediaries in foreign trade. - The “New Trade Code,” which prohibits foreigners from conducting retail trade in the domestic market, is the beginning of the struggle to transform Russia into a strong maritime power.
1696-1725 - Peter I is on the throne.
1695-96 - unsuccessful Azov campaign; start of ship construction.
1700-21 - Northern War with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.
05/16/1703 - the beginning of the construction of St. Petersburg, from 1712. - capital of Russia.
1707-09 - peasant war led by K. Bulavin.
1709 - The Battle of Poltava - the defeat of the Swedish army.
1714 - Battle of Gangut - defeat of the Swedish fleet; expedition to the Khiva Khanate.
since 1721 Peter I - Emperor; absolute monarchy.
1721 - end of the Northern War (Peace of Nystad; Finland).
Reforms: recruitment of peasants into the army and their lifelong service; 1708 - division of the state into provinces;
1711 - the Senate was introduced instead of the Boyar Duma; 1715 - Naval Academy; 1718-20 - abolition of orders, introduction of collegiums;
1719 - Kunstkamera (museum); 1721 - subordination of the church to the Synod, the head of the church is not the metropolitan, but the patriarch;
1722 - “Table of Ranks” - military and secular positions; 1725 - St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
1725-27 - Catherine I (Peter’s wife) on the throne with the support of Menshikov; establishment of the Supreme Privy Council, limiting the power of the empress.
1727-30 - reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter II.
1730-40 - reign of Peter I’s niece, Anna Ioanovna; Biron.
1741-61 - reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth.
1761-62 - reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter III; displaced by his wife, Catherine II.
1762-96 - Catherine II; strengthening the privileges of the nobles, strengthening serfdom.
1773-75 - peasant war led by E. Pugachev.
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I.
Since 1725 By 1800 there were 8 representatives of the Romanov dynasty on the throne.
Foreign policy: 1654 - annexation of parts of Ukraine and Belarus to Russia; con. XVI - XVIII centuries. - development of Siberia (at the end of the 17th century the Russian population of Siberia was 150 thousand people); 1731 - annexation of part of Kazakhstan; 1756-63 - participation in the Seven Years' War with Prussia; 1768-74 - Russian-Turkish war (Russian victory; Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace); 1783 - annexation of Crimea, 1787-91. - Russian-Turkish war (Peace of Yasin), 1788-90. - war with Sweden (Revel Peace).
The basic principle of foreign policy: expansion of borders at the expense of adjacent territories.
In the second half of the 18th century. Signs of capitalism began to appear in Russia.
1763 - banning Europeans from moving to the West.
1765 - organization "Sons of Liberty" against colonial dependence.
1774 - representatives of 13 states gathered in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress - refusal to obey the laws of the mother country.
1775 - War of Independence; convening of the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia - creation of an army (D. Washington).
07/04/1776 - adoption of the “Declaration of Independence” (Thomas Jefferson); US education.
France, Spain and Russia were interested in weakening England, so they provided assistance to the United States.
1782 - end of the war; September 3, 1763 a truce was signed in Paris; England recognized the independence of the United States.
1787 - adoption by the Constituent Convention (parliament: 55 representatives from 13 states) of the US Constitution, which did not abolish slavery; The USA is a presidential republic; Presidential term of office is 4 years; Congress (parliament) consists of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house).
1789 - I President - D. Washington
Germany
Until the 16th century An international trade route passed through Germany, which lost its importance due to the movement of sea trade routes to the Atlantic Ocean. The country ranked first in the world in copper production.
Feudal fragmentation (more than 300 principalities). 1618-48 - The Thirty Years' War divided Europe into 2 blocs: I - the union of Austria, Spain and the German Catholic principalities.
II - the union of France, Denmark, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities.
Germany is an “empire without subjects”, “an empire without power”. “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation” until 1806.
In the II half. XVI century France, Sweden and Turkey were hostile to Germany.
1663 - for the first time in history, the German principalities created a national liberation army to resist Turkey.
Austria- Habsburg dynasty; capital - Vienna.
Prussia- formed in 1701 on the site of the Principality of Brandenburg; Frederick I; capital - Berlin; at the end of the 18th century. - 3rd country in Europe by territory, 4th by army size under Frederick II (1740-86) - absolutist monarchy
Asian countries
India
1525-26 - conquest of the Delhi Sultanate (Lodi dynasty) by Babur (in the battle of Panipat, Babur’s 12 thousand army defeated the 100 thousand army of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi); the Mughal (Baburid) empire lasted 332 years; Babur reigned for 3 years
1530 - death of Babur; ruler of India, Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar son of Babur - Humayun
1540-54 - on the Indian throne Sherkhan Sur - leader of the Afghan tribes
1555 - Humayun regained the Indian throne
1556-1605 - reign of Akbarshah (“Great Akbar”); streamlined the tax system, expanded the irrigation system, established internal and external trade; divided the state into 15 provinces; expanded the borders in 1559 defeated the Sur dynasty; achieved prosperity
1627-58 - reign of Shah Jahan; intensifying struggle for the throne
1658-1707 - reign of Aurangzeb; maximum limits; peak of power; persecution of representatives of non-Islamic religions; struggle for national independence (Sikhs and Marathas (Shivozhi)); the beginning of the decline of the state
1666-72 revolt against the Baburids; suppressed by Aurangzeb
1709 - an uprising in the province of Kandahar under the leadership of the head of the Afghan Ghilzai tribe, Mir-Weiskhan; Kandahar branch
1757 - the capture of Bengal by England (the French were ousted); the beginning of the colonization of India; East India Campaign activities
Culture: under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra and the Jami Mosque were built; flourishing of painting and miniatures
China
XVI century - political fragmentation of the Ming state; economic decline
1618 - the ruler of Manchuria Nurhatsi began a campaign against China
1636 - Nurkhatsi's heir, Abahai, declared himself emperor; Qing Dynasty (pure, transparent) until 1912
1643 - capture of Beijing by rebels; Li Tzu-cheng - Emperor Zhang Hsien-chong created an independent state in southwest China
1644 - the imperial army (Wu San-gua) agrees to become a vassal of Manchuria; end of the Ming Dynasty; defeat of Li Tzu-cheng and Zhang San-chung
1637 - capture of Korea
1689 - Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia (China seized the left bank of the Amur)
1757 - a decree on conducting foreign trade only under the control of the state through the port of Guangzhou (closing the country, an attempt to protect against enslavement by European countries)
1758 - conquest of the Dzungar (Oirat) Khanate; later all of Mongolia and Kashgar
II sex. XVII century - Burma and Vietnam are vassals. China
1792 - Nepal is a vassal of China
In its policy of conquest, China relied on the help of Western European countries. But since 1757 all ports except Guangzhou were closed to Europeans
Japan
In the beginning. XVI.c. Japan broke up into a number of small states
1543 - Portuguese merchant Mendis Pinto brought firearms to Japan; spread of Christianity.
1552 - the appearance of the Spaniards, Dutch and English
1573 - Oda Nobunaga united half the provinces, overthrowing the Aksikaga shogun; carried out reforms to promote economic development
1582 - assassination of Oda Nobunaga; ruler Toyotomi Hidayoshi; founded Osaka
1587 - expulsion of Catholic missionaries, leaving only Portuguese merchants
1592 - unsuccessful attack on Korea
1598 - death of Toyotomi Hidayoshi; shogun - Tokugawa Iayasu; built in Edo (modern Tokyo)
1603 - 1867 - reign of the III dynasty of shoguns - Tokugawa; completed the unification of the country
1614 - prohibition of Christianity; policy of economic self-isolation in order to protect against colonization by European countries
1636 - the last to be expelled were the Portuguese (more than 200 years of isolation)
1716-45 - reign of Yoshimune Tokugawa; encouraged the development of new lands, introduced a “100-point decree” regulating the life of the country; the beginning of the formation of capitalist relations
Ottoman Empire
Administrative structure: the empire consisted of provinces ruled by wali, the provinces were divided into sanjaks ruled by sanjakbeys
Military-feudal system of land tenure: Zeamet - large land grant, owner - loan (bey)
Timar - small land grant, owner - timariot (sipah)
Continuation of the aggressive policy:
1514 - Selim I defeated the Iranian army of Ismail Safevi
1516 - capture of Syria and Palestine
1517 - capture of Cairo (Egypt) Ottoman possessions extended on 3 continents: Asia, Europe, Africa
1579 - peasant uprising led by Sheikh Jalal; Since then, all the rebels were called “Jalalists”, and the uprisings themselves were called “Jalalism”
1526 - uprising led by Qalandar
1610 - “Firman of Justice” - the return to peasants of lands abandoned during the famine for a small fee
The ruin of the peasants led to the decline of agriculture in the country. The crisis of the military-feudal system of land tenure led to the decline of the military power of the Ottomans. The Empire opens markets for European states - France, England
Russian-Turkish wars: 1768-74, 1787-91
Ser. XVIII century - “Westernization” movement - development of social, cultural and spiritual life firman - special decree of Sultan Ozin - non-Muslim
Iran
In con. XV century Iran was divided into several territories that were not subordinate to the central government. Political fragmentation.
1500-01 Ismal I Safevi conquered a number of territories and in 1502. declared himself Shahinshah (1502-24). Safavid State. Territory: Iran, Azerbaijan, part of Armenia, Afghanistan, part of Iraq, etc. Capital - Tabriz (Azerbaijan). Replaced suyurgal with tiyulni.
1587-1629 - the reign of Shah Abbas I is the pinnacle of development. Transfer of the capital to Isfahan (Iran). Tax reform. Modernization of the army with the help of English specialists (guns and firearms).
1602 - victory in the war with Turkey
Expulsion of the Portuguese from the island. Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. The East India Campaign received preferential treatment in trade with Iran.
The Safavid period is the “golden age” of Iranian art
Beginning XVIII century - economic crisis caused by a decrease in government. lands and taxes on them.
1709 - Kandahar branch
1710 - Sultan Hussein decree not to leave the land for the peasants
1722 - Mir-Mahmud, at the head of the Afghan army, captured the capital; period of the Afghan conquest; Safavids formally power
1730 - commander Tahmasp II (the last Safavid Shah) Nadir (from the Turkmen Afshar tribe) liberated Iran from the Afghans
1736 - overthrow of the Safavids; Nadir - Shah of Iran
1747 - assassination of Nadir Shah as a result of civil strife; collapse of the state; in Iran, the struggle between the Zend and Qajar tribes
1758 - victory of the Zend tribe; Kerim Khan Zend (1758-79)
1796 - power is in the hands of the Qajars; Agha-Mhammed - founder of the Qajar dynasty (lasted until 1925; 129 years)
IIstage (Ifloor. -60sgg.XIXV.)
1847 - economic crisis in European countries
Great Britain - the first industrialized country in the world; “mistress of the seas”, “industrial workshop of the world”
During this period, the industrial revolution ended.
1825 - the world's first railway (in 1830 the length of the railway in the world was 195 km, of which in Great Britain - 91 km) the world's first economic crisis
40s of the XIX century. - application in agricultural machines and chemicals. fertilizers
1825 - a law prohibiting strikes
1832 - the first parliamentary reform that expanded the rights of the bourgeoisie;
the new parliament established an 8-hour working day for children under 13 years of age and banned the work of children under 9 years of age
1837-1900 - reign of Queen Victoria (63 years); "age of Victoria"
1867 - the second parliamentary reform granted the right to vote to all men over 21 who own a house
Colonial policy: capture of Gibraltar (exit from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Sea), Aden (from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean),
Cape Town (Cape of Good Hope in South Africa), Singapore (Indian Threshold), Hong Kong (Chinese Threshold)
Basic principle: “Divide and conquer!”; 1857 - beginning of the conquest of India (Bengal)
“White” colonies (populated by immigrants from Europe): Canada (dominion since 1867), Australia, New Zealand
France
1804 - Napoleon - Emperor of France; I Empire (1804-14)
1805 - the beginning of wars of conquest:
1805 - capture of Vienna - the capital of Austria
1805 - Battle of Trafalgar: destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by the British;
economic (continental) blockade of England
2.12.1806 - the battle of Austerlitz - the defeat of the Austro-Russian army; end of the "Holy Roman Empire"
1806 - capture of Berlin - the capital of Prussia
1812 - invasion of Russia: 09/07/1812 - Battle of Borodino (the Russian army retreated, surrendering Moscow (Kutuzov));
Napoleon's army collapsed; the beginning of the collapse of the Empire
con. 1812 - Napoleon's attempt to create a new army; anti-Napoleonic coalition: Russia, England, Prussia, Austria
1813 - Battle of Leipzig - the coalition army defeated the French.
1814 - capture of Paris by the coalition army; end of the Empire; Napoleon was exiled to the island. Elbe;
1814 - Bourbon restoration (Louis XVIII); adoption of the Constitution; demand of the nobles to return the old order
1815 - seizure of power by Napoleon (100 days)
06/18/1815 - Battle of Waterloo: defeat of the French by the armies of Prussia and Russia
10.1814-06.1815 - Congress of Vienna (Russia, Austria, England, Prussia, Spain, Sweden, Portugal and France)
Decisions: France returns to the borders of 1789; reparations 700 million francs
England gets o. Malta and former colonies of Holland - about. Ceylon, Cape Colony in southern Africa;
Russia - most of Poland;
Germany united into the German Confederation (instead of 200 there are now 39), led by Austria;
The Rhine region, Westphalia and western Poland were annexed to Prussia; Austria strengthened itself in Eastern Italy;
Belgium was annexed to Holland;
Switzerland regained its independence and declared itself a forever neutral state;
The monarchy was restored in Spain
Creation of the "Holy Alliance" by Austria, Russia and Prussia to fight the revolutionary movement in Europe
March 1815 - return of power to Louis XVIII; persecution of Napoleon supporters
July 1830 - dissolution of parliament; restriction of voting rights; uprising in Paris; escape of King Charles X; Louis Philippe on the throne
Orleans - July Monarchy; adoption of a new constitution that declared freedom of speech, press and assembly, lowered the age and property qualifications for voters, and provided for an increased role of parliament
1830 - capture of Algeria
1831 - suppression of the uprising of weavers in Lyon demanding higher wages
1834 - suppression of the II uprising of weavers in Lyon, who demanded the establishment of a republic and expansion of voting rights
1845 and 1847 - drought
1847 - economic crisis in Europe
02/23/1848 - the beginning of the revolution in France
02/25/1848 - declaration of France as a presidential republic; The Constitution of the Second Republic proclaimed freedom of speech and strikes, established a 10-11 hour working day; a decree was issued to provide workers with work; organization of “National Workshops” for the unemployed
December 1848 - election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I) as president
1851 - coup d'etat organized by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
2.12.1852 -establishment of the Second Empire in France; Emperor Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
Germany
Medieval feudal-absolutist orders became the main cause of the revolutionary situation. The moderate bourgeoisie led the revolution and demanded a constitutional monarchy. The driving force was the petty and middle bourgeoisie, workers, advanced intelligentsia
1848 - adoption of the Constitution in Prussia; the revolutionary struggle that engulfed the scattered German states did not produce results
Fichte - ideologist of German unification
1866 - formation of the North German Confederation led by Prussia (22 states);
President of the Union - King of Prussia, Bundeschancellor - Otto von Bismarck (developed the Constitution of the Union)
1870-71 - Franco-Prussian War; Prussian victory
1871 - unification of Germany around Prussia; Prussian King Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany
Italy
1848-49 - Republic in Rome; suppressed by the French army
Giuseppe Mazzini - leader of the Roman Republicans, created the organization "Young Italy"
Lombardy and Venice were part of Austria-Hungary, Parma, Modena and Tuscany were under Habsburg rule
The process of unification of Italy took place around the Sardinian kingdom as the strongest among the Italian states.
Camillo Benso Cavour - Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a supporter of moderate reforms and a constitutional monarchy.
Convinced France to help Sardinia in the fight against Austria-Hungary (1859)
1860 - Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Palermo (Sicily) and Naples
1861 - proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy; King Victor Emanuel II; a constitutional monarchy
1866 -annexation of Venice; 1870 - Rome
Austria-Hungary formed in 1867
Switzerland
By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Switzerland is a Union of Independent States (confederation), consisting of 22 canton states. Revolution of 1848 was reflected in the Constitution, which strengthened the central government
1863 - establishment of the Committee for International Assistance to the Wounded
1864 - signing of the international Convention on the establishment of the Red Cross Society
1865 -after the signing of the agreement on the formation of the International Telegraph Union in Paris, a
International Telegraph Bureau
Russia
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I
40s - 90s XIX century -industrial Revolution
1801-25 - reign of Alexander I; establishment of a police regime in the country (“Arakcheevism”)
1816 - creation of a revolutionary circle of officer youth “Union of Salvation”, transformed in 1818 into the “Union of Welfare”
1821-22 - dissolution of the “Union of Welfare”; creation of the Southern (Ukraine; director P.I. Pestel) and Northern (St. Petersburg; director N.M. Muravyov) societies;
developed draft constitutions: Pestel - proclamation of the republic (“Russian Truth”)
Muravyov - constitutional monarchy, 2-chamber People's Assembly
12/14/1825 - Decembrist uprising (military coup) on Senate Square on the day of the coronation of Nicholas I; depressed
1825-55 - reign of Nicholas I (“gendarme of Europe”); increased reaction; censorship creation of the Third Department of the Imperial Chancellery to fight the revolutionary movement (A.H. Benckendorff)
1828-29 - Russian-Turkish war
20s - 30s. XIX century - activities of revolutionary circles: “Literary Society of the 11th number” of Belinsky, the circle of Herzen and Ogarev
40s XIX century - Slavophiles - saw a special path of development of Russia in the development of peasant communities (Khomyakov, Aksakov brothers), Westerners - a constitutional system (Granovsky, Panaev, Botkin)
1845 - “Petrashevites” (M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky) - utopian socialists
02/19/1861 - Alexander I signed a decree abolishing serfdom. The decree declared the peasants free,
The land was purchased for a ransom in installments over 49 years. “segment” - excess land above the norm
Military (1862), education (1863), zemstvo and judicial (1864), city (1870) reforms were carried out
Foreign policy: 1801 - acceptance of Eastern Georgia into Russian citizenship; 1804-13 - war with Iran for the Caucasus (Peace of Gulistan); 1806. - Russian-Turkish war (conquest of Bessarabia); 1828. - entry of Eastern Armenia and Northern Azerbaijan; 1834-59 = Shamil’s struggle for the independence of Dagestan, Chechnya and Adygea;
1864 - subjugation of the entire Caucasus; 1839 - attack on the Khiva Khanate (Perovsky); 1855 - Kurile Islands;
1853-56 - Russia lost to Turkey in the Crimean War (prohibition of maintaining a military fleet on the Black Sea and at the mouth of the Danube, transfer part of Bessarabia to Romania) America
1812-14 - war of England against the USA; capture of the capital
Purchase of Louisiana from France in 1822. - Spain had Florida, during the war with Mexico - part of its territory
30s XIX century - the beginning of the industrial revolution
The American way of agricultural development is farming. Types of management: in the north - using machines and chemicals. fertilizers
in the south - plantations using slaves
Abolitionists - supporters of the abolition of slavery
Con. 50s XIX century - John Brown's Virginia Rebellion
US political parties: Republicans (1854; supporters of the abolition of slavery; A. Lincoln) and Democrats (1828; supporters of slavery)
1860 - Lincoln - president; demanded the gradual abolition of slavery
02.1861 - 6 southern states announced the creation of the Southern Confederacy (capital Richmond)
1861-65 - American Civil War (North - South); victory of the North
01/01/1863 - decree abolishing slavery
1865 - assassination of Lincoln
law on homesteads - plots allocated free of charge to slaves
1866 - amendments to the Constitution on equal civil and political rights of blacks and whites
1867 - Purchase of Alaska from Russia
Foreign policy is based on the “Monroe Doctrine” - “America for the Americans” (appropriation of the wealth of South America and exclusion of Europeans)
Latin America
Haiti- the island was discovered by Columbus and belonged to France; in 1804 - as a result of the uprising (Toussaint Louverture) proclaimed
First Republic in Latin America
Mexico- 1810-11 - revolt against the Spanish colonialists (Miguel Hidalgo);
Jose Maria Morelos continued to fight until 1815
The struggle was supported by the landowners
1821(28) Mexican independence; abolition of slavery
Venezuela- 1819 - gaining independence (Simon Bolivar turned to European countries for help;
I President; dreamed of a confederation of countries liberated from Spanish rule); providing assistance to the rebels of New Granada; unification of Venezuela and New Granada - New (Greater) Colombia
1830 - Simon Bolivar removed from the post of President
Argentina- 1810 - Argentine independence (General José San Martin)
1826 - proclamation of the Republic
Chile- Argentine rebels crossed the Andes and assisted the Chilean rebels; 1817 - declaration of independence
Peru- 1820 - troops of San Mrtin (Argentina) crossed by sea to Peru
1821 - capture of the capital Lima; declaration of independence
Ecuador- 1822
Bolivia- 1823-24 - Bolivar's army (Venezuela) provided assistance to the rebels of Upper Peru.
1825 - Republic of Bolivia (in honor of Bolivar)
Uruguay- 1830
Cuba- 1869 - 78 - struggle for independence
Brazil- the only Portuguese colony in South America; in 1822 gained independence; monarchy did not abolish slavery
By 1830, Latin America was freed from the colonialists, and Republics were proclaimed in all countries except Brazil.
India
The British government established a “Council for the Supervision of Indian Affairs”, which determined the colonial policy of the kingdom.
The Governor of the East India Campaign in Calcutta was appointed by the Governor General of India.
Sepoys - a mercenary army from the local population led by the British
1843 - The East Indian Campaign subjugated the Sindh region. India
1857-59 - sepoy uprising; started in Bengal; the reason was the introduction of rifles with a rifled barrel (shells for them were wrapped in paper, greased with pork or cow fat); brutally suppressed, the rebels forced Baburid Bahadur Shah II (the last of the Baburids) to sign an appeal to the people to unite, Princess Lakshmi Bai proclaimed the independence of her principality of Jhansi Tantiya Topi waged a guerrilla war against the British
1858 - conquest of India by Great Britain; liquidation of the East India Campaign; the colony is subject to the government.
Reforms: in the agricultural sector, the opportunity for Indians to study (even in Europe) and hold government jobs. posts
China
1840-42 - the first “opium” war of England against China; capture of Shanghai and Hong Kong;
Treaty of Nanjing: China opened a number of ports for trade, but did not recognize the legality of opium imports
1856-60 - second “opium” war; England and France
capture of Beijing; opening of all ports, right of immunity from jurisdiction for English and French subjects; foreign ownership in China; China is a semi-colony.
1850-64 - Taiping peasant war under the leadership of the village teacher Hong Hsiu-quan in southern China in Canton; proclamation of Taiping Tianguo - “Heavenly State of Great Prosperity” (capital Nanjing); militarization, at first it was supported by landowners and merchants, later an internecine war began
in 1864 the state was defeated by the forces of China, England, the USA and France
1861 - on the throne is Princess Qixi “mother of the country”; the beginning of the strengthening of China; dissemination of science and technology in Europe
Japan
For 213 years, Japan was economically isolated.
1854 - signing of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the USA
1855 - Russian-Japanese treaty recognizing the Kuril Islands as the property of Russia
1858 - opening of several more ports for the United States; establishment of extraterritorial rights for American citizens - immunity, immunity from local laws, tax exemption
1867 - overthrow of the shogun, end of the military-political regime (almost 700 years), transfer of power to Emperor Mutsuhito (reigned 45 years) crowned Meiji “enlightened rule”),
1852-1912 - reign of Emperor Meiji
Meiji reforms: agrarian - made it possible to purchase and sell land; cash (not food) tax; development of capitalist relations; military - the introduction of universal military service (1872); loss of samurai significance; formation of an army according to the European model; introduction of a single currency - the yen; rapprochement with Europe;
1869 - law on the abolition of “4 layers” - abolition of classes, equality (1871, abolition of the lower powerless layer.
The reforms put an end to feudal fragmentation, gave impetus to the industrialization of the country, and went down in history as the “Meiji Revolution”
Ottoman Empire
Territory: Balkan Peninsula, Crimea, Black Sea region, Azov region, Asia Minor, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, part of Transcaucasia, North. Africa.
End of the 18th century - “Eastern Question” (interest of England, France, Austria and Russia in Turkish possessions)
In con. XVIII century the collapse of the state has begun. European countries helped suppress the national liberation movement, because were interested in keeping the empire under their influence.
Exacerbation of the Eastern Question:
1827 - Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia signed an agreement in London to grant autonomy to Greece.
1828-29 - Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire; defeat of the Turks. According to the peace treaty signed in Adrianople, Russia received Georgia, part of Armenia, and the north-west of the Black Sea region. Türkiye granted autonomy to Serbia and Greece.
1829 - Greece is declared an independent monarchy.
1832 - defeat of the Ottomans by the troops of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali;
1833 - Russia saved Turkey; Russian-Turkish alliance agreement, unfavorable for England and France.
1839 - repeated defeat of the Sultan's troops by the troops of Muhammad Ali with the support of England and France.
Agreement between Russia and Turkey in “Kichik Kaynar” on granting political rights to the Ozins.
1840 - signing by European powers of an agreement on the integrity of the Ottoman Empire; Muhammad Ali received the right of inheritance in Egypt and Sudan.
1853-56 - Crimean War with Russia; victory of Turkey with the support of England and France; reason: the demand of Nicholas I to recognize Russia as the intercessor of all Orthodox peoples.
The Paris Peace Treaty ensured the “protection” of Western states over Turkey; obtaining concessions - rights to rent land by foreigners, develop mineral resources, and build enterprises.
The "Reform Decree" legalized the religious rights of the Zoins
1860 - adoption of the Constitution of the Ottoman-Turkic state, by the 70s. XIX century Turkey's external debt amounted to 2.4 billion francs; The Ottoman Empire is a semi-colony, Ozin is not a Muslim.
“Tanzimat” - the era of “Westernizing” reforms in industry, agriculture, and military affairs; harmed Turkish culture by distorting the understanding of European life. Movement of the “New Ottomans” - criticized “Westernism”
Afghanistan
Until 1709 Afghanistan was under the rule of India (eastern) and Safavid Iran (western).
1649-1709 - trade routes in the hands of the Safavids.
1666-72 revolt against the Baburids; suppressed by Aurangzeb.
1709 - an uprising in the province of Kandahar under the leadership of the head of the Ghilzai tribe, Mir-Weiskhan; proclamation of the Khanate.
1722 - the troops of Mir-Makhmudkhan (son of Mir-Weiskhan) occupied the capital of Iran - Isfahan; Mir Mahmudkhan - Shah of Iran, Iranian liberation struggle (Nadir)
1729 - expulsion of Afghans from Iran
1736 - Nadirkhan captured Afghanistan; to keep them in obedience, he relocated 12 thousand Iranian soldiers to Kabul and other cities
1747 - the jirga (council) of tribal leaders declared the head of the tribe, Abdali Akhmedkhan (“Drrri-Doron” - “pearl of pearls”) as Shah
Afghanistan; Dorrani dynasty; aggressive policy
1793-1801 - Zamanshah (grandson of Ahmed Shah) pursues a policy of conquest
Since 1809 - vizier - head of the Barakzai tribe - Fathan manages all affairs
1826 - Fathan's brother Dost Mohammed declared himself emir; Barakzai dynasty
1838-42 - The First Anglo-Afghan War ended in the defeat of Great Britain
1839 - capture of Kabul by the British
1841 - uprising in Kabul (Akbarshah)
1842 - restoration of the power of Dost Mohammed
1855 - Anglo-Afghan treaty
1857 - military agreement with Great Britain; the first step towards turning Afghanistan into a vassal state
1863 - internecine war for the throne; England declared non-intervention
Iran
Absolute monarchy. A secret council operated under the Shah. The state is divided into vilayets, governed by beklarbegs. The heir was allocated Azerbaijan with a residence in Tabriz.
1797-1834 - reign of Fathali Shah; Iran finds itself embroiled in international politics
1813 - Gulistan Russian-Iranian Treaty, according to which Iran lost Mountainous Karabakh, Ganji, Derbent and the Northern Khanates;
Russia received the right to maintain a fleet in the Caspian Sea
1828 - according to the Turkmanchay peace treaty with Russia (after the war of 1826-28), Iran lost the entire Caucasus
1841 - an agreement with England, which opened the Iranian market for British goods; disruption of the economy
Seyid Ali-Muhammad is the founder of the Babid teachings. (1844) Through the Babs (“Gate”), the “hidden Imam Mahdi” conveys his will to the people.
Seyid Ali-Muhammad wrote the book “Beyan” (“Revelation”), in which he outlined the foundations of his teaching. He declared himself a prophet instead of Muhammad, and his work - a new holy scripture.
1848-50 - revolt of the Babids; demands: abolition of private property and large land ownership, existing religion and state. building, equality of all people. Suppressed due to disunity, contradictions with religion, and was not supported by the population.
1853 - England forced Iran to renounce its claims to Herat (Afghanistan)
1856 - capture of Herat; Anglo-Iranian war; Iran lost; Treaty of Paris (1857) renunciation of Iranian claims to Herat;
Great Britain is the guarantor of the resolution of the Iran-Afghan conflicts
Africa
Portuguese colonies Angola And Mozambique were bases for the slave trade on the African continent. In con. XIX century 90% of the continent were colonies of developed countries. Liberia and Ethiopia retained their independence
Liberia
1816 - in the United States, a movement began for the placement of blacks freed from slavery. For this purpose, 13 thousand km 2 and islands were purchased on the coast of Guinea. Providence. The Monrovia resettlement center was organized (in honor of US President M. Monroe).
1847 - proclamation of the Republic of Liberia; capital - Monrovia; democratic constitution
Ethiopia
Feudal fragmentation.
1855 - the son of the average landowner Kass declared himself emperor; unification of the country; creation of the army, economic reforms
1857 - with the support of large feudal lords and the church, England started the war
The threat of a nationwide uprising forced England to retreat. Ethiopia retained its independence.
South Africa
Indigenous people: Hottentots (Khoikoins), Bushmen (Sans) and Bantu. All R. XVII century The Dutch founded the Capsa colony here, inhabited by immigrants from Holland and France (Boers).
Early 19th century - British takeover of South Africa
The displaced Boers seized land from the African population and created 2 states: the Orange Republic and the Transvaal.
1852 - British recognition of the Transvaal
1854 - recognition by England of the Orange Republic
French colonies
Mamelukes - guardsmen from slaves captured in Georgia and the North Caucasus, in the Egyptian Sultan's army
The Mamelukes and the local population fought against Napoleon's army.
1830 - colonization Algeria
1847 - death of Abdulkadir - leader of the liberation movement
Morocco fought against Portuguese, Spanish and French colonialists.
Socio-political ideas.
Socialism - originated in France in the 30s. XIX century; the idea that by transforming private property into public property it is possible to build a society of free, equal, happy people living in abundance. The ideas of the utopian socialists were formulated by the Englishmen T. More (“Utopia”) and R. Owen, C. Campanella (“City of the Sun”), G. Babeuf; in the 19th century by the French Claude-Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier (plan for a new society consisting of phalanxes) and the Englishman Robert Owen (improved working conditions in his factory),
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The attitude of humanists to conception, pregnancy and the birth of a child in early modern times. The evolution of views from medieval society to Renaissance society on the ages of life. Study of humanism in high school. Perception of childhood and old age in the family.
thesis, added 09/08/2016
The importance of economic factors (expansion of trade relations, industrial revolution) for the process of movement of the peoples of Europe (end of the Middle Ages - Modern times). The influence of political factors on the formation of the peoples of Europe and national states.
abstract, added 07/27/2010
Stages of primitive history. The place of antiquity in the history of mankind. Achievements that influenced the development of society. Social development of countries Western Europe in early modern times. Stages Russian history, their general and specific characteristics.
test, added 05/03/2014
Cromwell's military talent and dictatorial traits during the civil war between parliamentarians and royalists. The path of M. Robespierre from orator to dictator, inspirer of revolutionary terror. Political lessons the first bourgeois revolutions in Europe.
course work, added 01/26/2015
The level and pace of socio-economic development of individual peoples and countries. Centers for the development of bourgeois relations. The transition of Western Europe to the New Age. Manufacture in Europe. The originality of manufacturing capitalism in Holland.
test, added 06/06/2008
Population and the emergence of new state formations on the islands of the Indonesian archipelago in early modern times. Indonesia in the mid-17th - mid-19th centuries, the emergence of a system of colonial administration. Indonesia in the second half of the 19th century.
