The Aztecs belonged to the last wave of Indian tribes who migrated from the more northern regions of the American continent to the Valley of Mexico. The culture of these tribes at first did not have any pronounced features, but gradually they crystallized into a single solid whole - the Aztec civilization. Initially, the tribes lived separately in their village and satisfied their living needs by cultivating the land. As far as possible, these resources were supplemented by tribute to the conquered peoples. The tribe was headed by a hereditary leader, who simultaneously performed priestly functions. Religious beliefs were characterized by a complex polytheistic system based on the worship of nature, with the emphasis on the worship of one or more gods in special cults.
1168 A.D. - the history of the Aztecs begins. The Aztecs (Meshiki or Tenochki) begin their exodus from the ancestral home of Aztlana, guided by their supreme god of war, Huitzilopochtli. Around 1325, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on the site of the city of Mexico City, which later became the capital of the most powerful state in Mexico. Initially, the tenochki fell into dependence on the city of Kuluacan. It was a huge city that played an important role in the Mexico City Valley. Another major center of this time was the city of Texcoco, located on east coast Mexican lakes. About seventy cities paid tribute to its ruler Kinatsin (1298-1357). His successor Techotlal managed to combine all the dialects of the Valley of Mexico City into one Aztec language.
The Aztec culture was the last link in a long chain of advanced civilizations that flourished and declined in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The oldest of them, the Olmec culture, developed on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 14th and 3rd centuries. BC e. The Olmecs prepared the ground for the formation of subsequent civilizations, therefore the era of their existence is called pre-classical. They had a developed mythology with an extensive pantheon of gods, erected massive stone structures, were skilled in stone carving and pottery. Their society was characterized by hierarchy and narrow professionalization; the latter was manifested, in particular, in the fact that specially trained people were involved in religious, administrative and economic issues. These features of Olmec society were further developed in subsequent civilizations.
Public education of the Aztecs in Mexico in the 14th - early 16th centuries. centered in the city of Tenochtitlan until 1348 was dependent on the rulers of the city of Culuacan in 1348-1427. At the end of the 20s of the 15th century, the Aztec ruler Itzcoatl led the "union of three cities" of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and defeated the rulers of Azzopotsalco. As a result of the wars of conquest waged by Itzcoatl and his successors (Montezuma I the Wrathful, ruled in Auizotl 1440-1469; Ashayakatl 1469-1486; Auizotl 1486-1503), not only the valley entered the Aztec kingdom the Mexico City rivers, but also the whole of Central Mexico. The Aztec kingdom reached its highest flowering under Montezuma II (1503-1519). In the 15th and early 16th centuries. slavery was greatly developed. The main ruler of the Aztec kingdom, Tlacatecuhtli or Tlatoani, was formally an elected leader, in fact, his power was hereditary. The formation of the main classes of society was not completed. The position of a member of society was determined by his belonging not only to a class, but also to a caste, of which there were over ten in the Aztec kingdom.
By the time the Spaniards arrived in early XVI century, the Aztec empire covered a huge territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km - with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The capital of the empire - Tenochtitlan - eventually turned into a huge city, the area of which was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people. This island city was connected with the mainland by three large stone roads - dams, and there was a whole flotilla of canoe boats. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. He formed the core of the city ritually - administrative center: "Sacred site" - a 400 m long walled square, inside of which were the main city temples, dwellings of priests, schools, a ground for ritual ball games. Nearby were the ensembles of the magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers - "tlatoani". According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma (more precisely, Moctezuma) II had up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths. Around the center were crowded residential quarters inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, and soldiers. The huge Main Market and the smaller quarter bazaars traded in local and transported products and goods. The general impression of the magnificent Aztec capital is well conveyed by the words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest - soldier Bercal Diaz del Castillo from the Cortez detachment. Standing on top of a high stepped pyramid, the conquistador looked in amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of the life of a huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various loads, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and from house to house you could only get through suspension bridges or boats. And we saw ... pagan temples and chapels, reminiscent of towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with white and aroused admiration. "
Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortez after a three-month siege and a fierce struggle in 1525. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built a new city - Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of their colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of the Aztec buildings were covered with multi-meter strata modern life... Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct systematic and extensive archaeological research of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally in the course of excavation in the center of Mexico City are stone sculptures born - the creations of ancient masters. Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s - 80s became a real sensation. XX century during the excavation of the Main Temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, on Zocalo Square, between cathedral and the presidential palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun and war, the head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings and stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly noteworthy are a round stone with a diameter of over three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Koyolshauhka - the sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pits - hiding places filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people). The newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded the existing ideas about material culture, religion, trade, economic and political ties of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries.
The Aztecs were in that initial phase social development when the alien prisoner-slave was not yet fully included in the economic mechanism of the emerging class society, when the benefits and advantages that the labor of slaves could give were not yet fully realized. However, the institution of debt slavery had already emerged, spreading to the local poor; the Aztec slave found his place in the new, developing relations of production, but he retained the right of redemption, which, as you know, the "classic" slave was deprived of. Of course, foreign slaves were also involved in economic activities, but slave labor has not yet become the basis of the foundations of this society.
The senseless destruction of thousands of captive slaves on the sacrificial altars of Aztec temples was made the basis of the cult. Human sacrifice has become the central event of any holiday. Sacrifices were made almost daily. One person was sacrificed with solemn honors. So, every year from among the prisoners, the most beautiful young man was chosen, who was destined to enjoy all the benefits and privileges of the god of war Tezcatlipoca for a year, so that after this period he would be on the sacrificial altar stone. But there were also such "holidays" when the priests sent hundreds, and according to some sources, thousands of prisoners to another world. True, it is difficult to believe in the reliability of such statements, belonging to eyewitnesses of the conquest, but the dark and cruel, uncompromising religion of the Aztecs with mass human sacrifices knew no limits in its zealous service to the ruling caste aristocracy.
The Aztec state was a fragile territorial entity, similar to the many territorial empires of antiquity. The nature of its economy was polymorphic, but it was based on intensive irrigated agriculture. The set of crops cultivated by the Aztecs was typical of the Mexico Valley. These are corn, zucchini, pumpkin, green and red peppers, many types of legumes and cotton. Tobacco was also grown, which the Aztecs smoked mostly in hollow reed stalks, like cigarettes. They loved the Aztecs and chocolate made from cocoa beans. The latter also served as a medium of exchange. Agriculture was an important part of life in Tenochtitlan. Aztec codes, as well as Spanish chronicles, state that Aztec landowners created strips of fertile land built on water using silt and algae from the surrounding swamps. These artificially created fields, chinampas, were divided by canals, and the edges had to be reinforced with wooden supports or specially planted trees to prevent the earth from falling back into the water. Aztec chinampas were remarkably fertile. Farmers cultivated a wide variety of crops, including maize, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkin, beans, spices and flowers, squash, oilseeds, and cotton. The swamps were drained using a network of canals. The intoxicating drink pulque was made from agave juice.
The Aztecs had few pets. They had several breeds of dogs, one of which was used for food. The most common poultry is turkeys, possibly geese, duck and quail. Handicrafts played a significant role in the Aztec economy, especially pottery, weaving, as well as the processing of stone and wood. There were few metal items. Some, such as the finely forged sickle-shaped copper knives, served as a medium of exchange along with the cocoa beans. Gold was used by the Aztecs only for making jewelry, and silver was probably of great value. The most important among the Aztecs was jade and stones that resemble it in color and structure. Crafts separated from agriculture and reached a high level of development.
The market was located in one of the districts of Tenochtitlan called Tlatelolco. From the descriptions of the Spanish soldiers, they had never before seen such a large and well-organized market with such a huge variety of goods as in Tenochtitlan. There was a special place for each type of goods, and all goods were carefully checked. Those who stole or cheated were severely punished. The only type of exchange among the Aztecs was exchange trade. The medium of exchange was cocoa beans, nibs filled with golden sand, pieces of cotton cloth (kuachtli) and the copper knives mentioned above. Due to the high costs of human labor for transportation in the Aztec state, it was reasonable to bring the places of production of goods and products as close as possible to the places of their consumption. Therefore, the population of the cities turned out to be extremely variegated both professionally and socially, and many artisans worked for a significant part of the time in the fields and vegetable gardens. Over long distances it was profitable to move only the most expensive or the lightest in weight and small in volume products - for example, fabrics or obsidian; on the other hand, the local exchange was unusually lively. The Aztecs had a very good education, disciplines such as religion, astronomy, history of laws, medicine, music and the art of war were taught. The arts of dance and many sports were developed, as well as theater and poetry. They had a ball game very similar to basketball today.
The ruler or king was called "tlatoani". In speeches dedicated to the new ruler, it was emphasized that he was only the representative of Tezcatlipoca on earth, his likeness, an instrument through which the omnipotent deity rules people. The role of the ruler as a mediator between gods and people, or, more precisely, an instrument of the gods.
In the social structure of Aztec society, the following five groups were distinguished: warriors, priests, merchants, commoners, slaves. The first three estates constituted the privileged classes of society, the fourth and fifth groups - its exploited part. The estates were not homogeneous. There was a certain hierarchy within them, determined by the size of property and social status. All classes were clearly divided, and this could be determined even by their clothes. According to one of the laws introduced by Montezuma I, each class had to wear its own type of clothing. This also applied to slaves. The military nobility played a decisive role in Aztec society. The title tekutli ("noble") was usually given to people who held important government and military posts. Most of the civilian ranks were actually the same military. The most noble ones who distinguished themselves in the battle of the war formed a kind of "order", a special alliance of "Eagles" or "Jaguars". The nobility received natural allowance and land plots from the Tlatoani. No one except nobles and leaders could build a house with two floors on pain of death. There was a difference in punishment for offenses for a noble person and a commoner. Moreover, the class norms were often more cruel. So, if a person who was in enemy captivity was of "low origin", then he was not threatened with expulsion from the community and family, while the "noble" was killed by the compatriots themselves, relatives. This reflected the desire to preserve the strength of their position at the top of society.
The priesthood was also among the privileged estates of Aztec society. The conquerors-Aztecs were extremely interested in strengthening the religion, because it, preaching war as the highest valor, and the Aztecs as its most worthy bearers, provided an ideological basis for the policy of conquest, which they carried out throughout their independent history. The priests were in the forefront during military campaigns. They were the first to meet the soldiers returning home at the gates of the capital. The temples increased their wealth through gifts and voluntary donations. It could be a donation of land or part of a tribute to the nobility and Tlatoani. The donation of the population could be for a variety of reasons: fortune-telling, prediction, donations for the sake of the success of their activities. The temples also had their own handicraft production. All income went to the maintenance of the priesthood and the conduct of numerous religious rites. The life of the priesthood was regulated by certain norms. The priest, guilty of the connection with the woman, was secretly beaten with sticks, property was taken away, and the house was destroyed. They also killed all those who were involved in this crime. If the priest had unnatural inclinations, then he was burned alive.
The lowest social step in the hierarchy of Aztec society was occupied by slaves. The sources of slavery among the Aztecs were varied. Selling into slavery for theft was practiced. Debt slavery was common. Betrayal in relation to the state or one's immediate master was also punished involuntarily. However, the most characteristic of the ancient Aztec society was patriarchal slavery. Parents could sell their "careless" children into slavery. This happened more often in lean years, when there was a wide slave trade.
The Aztec state consisted of about 500 cities and other settlements, divided into 38 administrative units headed by local rulers or specially sent administrators. To collect tribute, monitor the tsarist lands and service allotments, there were special officials - kalpish, appointed from the military class. There was also local legal proceedings. Local courts considered only minor crimes, or the evidence of which is easily proven. The bulk of the cases of ordinary citizens were decided by these courts. There was a special staff of "scribes" to record cases in various institutes. In most cases, the notes were made using pictography, however, sometimes May hieroglyphic writing was also used.
Diverse interpersonal relationships in Aztec society governed marital and family norms. Their most characteristic feature was the unlimited power of father and husband. The basis of the family was marriage, the procedure for the conclusion of which was equally a religious and legal act. It was built, as a rule, according to the principle of monogamy, but polygamy was also allowed for wealthy people. There were two types of inheritance - by law and by will. Only sons inherited. The payment for adultery was death in various ways. Blood relatives were punished with death for intimate relationships: the perpetrators were hanged. However, levirate marriages were allowed. Drunkenness was severely punished. Only people over fifty could consume intoxicating drinks, and a strictly defined amount. Young people convicted of drunkenness were punished at school, sometimes beaten to death.
The last Aztec ruler in Tenochitlan was Montezuma II Shokoyotzin (1502-1520). The Spaniards who came to America conquered the continent.
The Aztecs not only worshiped the Feathered Serpent as one of the main inhabitants of the pantheon of their gods, but also well remembered the story of his exile. The priests, striving to keep the people in fear and submissive obedience, constantly reminded of the return of Quetzalcoatl. They convinced the people that the offended deity, who had gone to the east, from the east, would return to punish everyone and everything. Moreover, the legend said that Quetzalcoatl was white-faced and bearded, while the Indians were beardless, beardless and dark! White-faced Spaniards with beards came from the East. Oddly enough, he was the first, and at the same time unconditionally, to believe that the Spaniards are the descendants of the legendary deity Quetzalcoatl, none other than the all-powerful ruler of Tenochtitlan Moctezum, who enjoyed unlimited power. Fear of the divine origin of foreigners paralyzed his ability to resist, and the entire hitherto mighty country, along with a magnificent war machine, was at the feet of the conquerors. The Aztecs should immediately remove their ruler distraught with fear, but the same religion, which inspired the inviolability of the existing order, prevented this. When reason finally defeated religious prejudices, it was too late. As a result, the giant empire was wiped off the face of the earth, the Aztec civilization ceased to exist. The rich and distinctive Aztec culture was destroyed by the Spanish conquest from 1519 to 1521. The capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, was razed to the ground by the conquistadors.
Summarizing the history and life of the Aztecs, we can say that their culture was formed from religion and politics. The priests had almost complete power over the people. Perhaps, in history there is hardly any other similar example, when it was religion that turned out to be the decisive factor in the defeat and complete destruction of those to whom it was supposed to serve faithfully. People's lives were completely controlled by laws based on religion. Even clothing and food were strictly regulated. Trade flourished, and anything could be bought in the marketplace of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.
In complete opposition to the orders in European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner to catch the slave. Also, a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities qualified the slave as disobedient. (Disobedience was defined as laziness, escape attempts, and misbehavior.) Disobedient slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. The shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their arrangement made it difficult to escape in crowds or in narrow aisles.
When buying a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times the slave was resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold for sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.
However, if a chained slave was presented in a royal palace or temple, he received freedom.
An Aztec could become a slave as a punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered at her request. The father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared the son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay debts could also be sold into slavery.
In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new master. Usually, this was the lot of unlucky gamblers and old "awini" courtesans or prostitutes.
Fun & Games
aztec empire communication
Although it was possible to drink "pulque" (a fermented beverage with a low alcohol content), the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk until they reached the age of sixty; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.
As in modern-day Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tluttley, the Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game of ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", which is where the Spanish "ole", meaning rubber, comes from.
According to other sources, the ball was stone, and the game was unusually cruel - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring, located high enough, without causing physical injury.
A participant in the game who fell into the ring with the ball was sacrificed.
The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or the captain of the winning team. (According to other sources, the captain and the players of the losing team were sacrificed).
The sacrifice of the participant who scored the “goal” was a great honor both for himself and for his entire family. Participants who did not show sufficient dexterity during the game remained alive, but together with their families fell to the lowest social stratum of society.
Education
Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents. There was an oral tradition (a set of oral instructions) called hueuetlatolli ("proverbs of the elderly") that conveyed the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs.
There were replicas, and sayings for every occasion, there were words for greeting birth and words of farewell at death.
Boys went to school from the age of 15. There were two types educational institutions... Tepochkalli taught history, religion, martial arts, as well as trade and crafts (peasant or artisan). In calmeki, where the sons of the pilli went mainly, they focused on the training of leaders (tlaktoks), priests, learned teachers and scribes. They learned rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in tepochkalli, martial arts.
Aztec teachers proposed a Spartan learning regime - cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bloodletting with thorns, and endurance tests - with the aim of forming a courageous people.
The girls were taught home craft and raising children, they were not taught to read and write.
For gifted children, there were two main possibilities: some were sent to the house of song and dance, and the other to the house of ball games. Both occupations had a high status.
The Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinamps, on Lake Tnskoco; cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The main foodstuffs of the Aztecs were maize (corn) beans and pumpkin seeds. Chinampa were very efficient and yielded up to seven harvests a year, based on current chinampa harvests, they collected food for 180,000 people. Much has been said about the lack of protein in the diet of the Aztecs as an argument in support of the theory of the existence of cannibalism in them, but these statements are unproven: the combination of maize and beans provides the necessary rate of essential amino acids, which removes the problem of lack of proteins. Moreover, the Aztecs had big variety other food: they caught acocyles, small shrimp that abound in Lake Texcoco, collected the algae spirulina, rich in flavoproteins, which was used in different types baking; they also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae.
Insects contain more protein than meat, and to this day, they are a delicacy in parts of Mexico. The Aztecs kept pets like turkey and itscuintli (a breed of meat dog), although usually the meat of these animals was intended for special occasions - situations of expressing gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boars, ducks ...
In my opinion, if the Aztecs had cannibalism, then most likely not from a lack of protein or meat, but rather from any religious considerations and traditions, for example, a way to show and feel the power of greatness and superiority over other people.
The Aztecs used agave extensively; food, sugar, drinks (pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothes were obtained from it. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Subordinate cities paid an annual tribute in the form of luxury goods (such as feathers and ornate costumes).
After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants.
Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in Peaceful time... Despite the shock of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the Conquest have come down to us. For several dozen poetic texts, the names of the authors are even known, for example, Nezahualco-yotl and Kuakucin.
Cheat Sheet: Aztec Culture
Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator from the Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions of the Aztec thought, regardless of the "official" worldview.
In the basement of the Great Temple is the "House of the Eagles" where, in peacetime, Aztec military leaders could drink frothing chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry.
The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments. One of the most common themes of the poems is "Is life reality or a dream?" and the opportunity to meet with the Creator. The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form could hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and representations of the gods.
The militancy of the Aztecs
None of the other nations aspired to military glory as the Aztecs. Death in battle or on a sacrificial stone was considered the most honorable. Warriors who died in battle, victims, as well as women who died during childbirth, could hope for the highest honor in underworld; almost all others, despite their social status, were forced to roam the underground for four years before reaching the lower level of the otherworldly kingdom, which the Aztecs called the Land of the Dead, or "our common home."
Religion was one of the reasons for the belligerence. Every night the struggle of the Sun with the Moon and the stars is repeated, and if Huitzilopochtli loses the battle, then life is doomed to perish in the dark. The powers of the deity must be restored every day and according to the ideas of the Aztecs, human blood, which they called "the most precious water", is perfectly suited for this.
Scientists are not unanimous in their estimate of how many people the Aztecs killed each year, but most likely around 20,000 were sacrificed throughout the empire.
In the world of warring states, a lot could be achieved exclusively by military skill, and the Aztecs understood this perfectly. Codes, Spanish reports and results archaeological site, in Mesoamerica, no advanced weapons of war did not appear. The outcome of the battle depended solely on the skill of individual warriors. In such conditions, the winner will be the one who achieves two goals - strengthening the military organization and raising the morale of the soldiers. The entire Aztec culture was built to maximize the achievement of these goals.
There is a special logic in the desire of the Aztecs for military success. It is noteworthy that the Aztecs almost did not try to conquer the conquered peoples. They did not build fortresses and did not leave garrisons behind enemy lines.
Instead, they sought to intimidate other city-states in the region: only fear of retribution kept the tribute flowing. Any hint that the Aztecs were no longer invincible would trigger an immediate uprising, which the Spaniards, who helped locals who wanted to overthrow the oppressors.
However, the Aztec war machine was trouble-free and as sophisticated as the level of development of society allowed. All the energy of the state was aimed at increasing military power. From the age of 20, any healthy man could be drafted into a military campaign, which regularly began in the fall, after the harvest and the end of the summer rains. In addition, there were professional warriors from among the nobility and commoners who distinguished themselves on the battlefield. They did not perform any other duties, but were mainly supported by tribute from the conquered cities.
The battles were mostly chaotic and violent hand-to-hand combat, with many opportunities for everyone to excel. In heroism, they were more reminiscent of the battles of Homeric Greece than the European armed maneuvers of that time. Usually, the fight began with archery and slingshot attacks. Then the troops converged, lined up in a long line, firing darts from atlals. In the vanguard were seasoned veterans, who entered into hand-to-hand combat with the enemy.
The purpose of military action was to force the conquered peoples to recognize the domination of the Aztecs and pay tribute to them. By 1519, a similar fate befell about 370 cities, and the amount of tribute supplied to Tenochtitlan annually was enormous. The tribute included 7000 tons of grain, 4000 tons of beans, 2 million cotton cloaks along with a smaller number of military armor, shields and feather headdresses.
During the excavations of the Great Temple, many luxury items were discovered, most of which ended up in the Aztecs as tribute, since they are not found in the Valley of Mexico.
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The Aztec Empire, centered on the capital Tenochtitlan, dominated most of Mesoamerica in the 15th and 16th centuries AD. Through military conquest and expansion of trade, Aztec art also spread, helping the Aztecs achieve cultural and political hegemony over their subjects and provide for posterity a tangible account of the artistic imagination and talent of the artists of this last great civilization of Mesoamerica.
INFLUENCES
The usual streams run through the history of Mesoamerican art. The Olmec, Mayan, Toltec and Zapotec cultures, among others, perpetuated an artistic tradition that showed a fondness for monumental stone sculpture, imposing architecture, highly colored ceramics, geometric stamps for fabric and body art, and exciting metalwork that was used to represent people. animals, plants, gods and features of the religious ceremony, especially those rites and deities associated with fertility and agriculture.
Aztec artists were also influenced by their contemporaries from neighboring states, especially those from Oaxaca (many of whom resided permanently in Tenochtitlan) and the Huastec Gulf Coast region, where there was a strong tradition of three-dimensional sculpture. These diverse influences and the Aztecs' own eclectic tastes and admiration for ancient art made their art one of the most diverse of all ancient cultures anywhere. Sculptures of dire gods with abstract images may come from the same workshop as naturalistic works depicting the beauty and grace of animal and human appearance.
FEATURES OF THE ART OF AZTEK
Metallurgy was a special skill of the Aztecs. The great Renaissance painter Albrecht Draurer saw some of the artifacts returned to Europe, which made him say: “… I have never seen in all my days what made my heart so happy as these things. For I saw amazing artistic objects among them, and I admired the subtle inventiveness of people in these distant lands. " Unfortunately, as with most other artifacts, these objects were melted down for currency and therefore very few examples survive thanks to the excellent metalworking skills of the Aztecs in gold and silver. Smaller items have been found, including gold labrettas (lip piercings), pendants, rings, earrings and necklaces in gold, representing everything from eagles to tortoiseshell shells to gods, demonstrating the skills of lost wax casting and the filigree work of the finest artisans or toltec.
Aztec sculpture was the best survivor, and its subject was very often people from the vast family of gods they worshiped. Carved out of stone and wood, these figures, sometimes monumental in size, were not idols containing the spirit of a god, since in the Aztec religion the spirit of a certain deity was believed to be inhabited in sacred sacred sacred temples and temples. However, it was considered necessary to "feed" these sculptures with blood and precious objects, therefore the stories from the Spanish conquistadors of huge statues, splattered with blood and inlaid with precious stones and gold. Other large sculptures, more in a circle, include the magnificent seated god Xochipilli and various chacmools, reclining figures with a hollow cut in a chest that was used as a vessel for heart sacrifices. They, like most other Aztec sculptures, were once painted using a wide range of vibrant colors.
A smaller sculpture has been found at sites throughout Central Mexico. They often take the form of local deities and especially those associated with agriculture. The most common are straight female figures of the corn deity, usually with an imposing headdress and the corn god Xipe Totec. Lacking the sophistication of imperial art, these sculptures and similar ceramic figures often represent the more benevolent side of the Aztec gods.
Miniature works were also popular when objects such as plants, insects, and shells were featured in precious materials such as carnelite, pearls, amethyst, rock crystal, obsidian, shell, and the most precious of all materials, jade. Other material that was highly regarded were exotic feathers, especially the green plumage of the quetzal bird. The feathers, cut into small pieces, were used to create mosaic paintings, as adornments for shields, costumes and fans, as well as in magnificent headdresses such as the one attributed to Motekuhome II, which is now in the Für-Völkerkund Museum in Vienna.
Turquoise was a particularly popular material with Aztec artists, and its use in mosaic form to cover sculptures and masks has created some of the most striking imagery from Mesoamerica. A typical example is the decorated human skull that represents the god Tezcatlipoca and which is now in the British Museum in London. Another great example is the Xiuhtecuhtli mask, the fire god, sleepy pearlescent eyes and a lovely set of white shells. Finally, there is the magnificent double-headed serpentine cloak, also now in the British Museum. With carved cedar wood entirely covered in small squares of turquoise, and red mouths and white teeth made in the spondylus and shell, respectively, the piece was likely part of a ceremonial costume. The snake was a powerful depiction in Aztec art as a creature capable of shedding its skin, represented regeneration, and was also particularly associated with the god Quetzalcoatl.
Despite the absence potter's wheel The Aztecs were also adept at pottery, as indicated by the large hollow figures and several beautifully carved covered urns that were excavated near the Mayor of Templo in Tenochtitlan, probably used as vessels for burial ash. Other examples of ceramic work include the Texcoco molded tripod-footed censer, erupted jugs, and elegant hourglass-shaped cups with hours. These vessels are generally thin-walled, well-distributed, have cream or red and black glide, and bear finely colored geometric patterns in earlier designs, and flora and fauna in later examples. The highest-value pottery of the Aztecs themselves, and the type that Motecuhsoma himself used, was the Cholula ultra-thin piece from Cholollan in the Puebla Valley. Vessels could also be made from molds or carved and the clay was still tough. A perfect example of these anthropomorphic vessels is the famous vase representing the head of the rain god Tlaloc, painted in bright blue, with eye-like eyes and fearsome red fangs, now in National Museum anthropology in Mexico City.
Musical instruments were another important part of the Aztec artist's repertoire. These include ceramic flutes and wooden teponazlits and huelts, respectively, long and vertical ceremonial drums. They are richly carved, and one of the best is the Malinalco drum, which is covered with dancing jaguars and eagles that represent sacrificial victims, as indicated by the banners and speech scrolls of battle and fire symbols.
ART AS PROPAGANDA
The Aztecs, like their cultural predecessors, used art as a tool to strengthen their military and cultural dominance.
The imposition of buildings, murals, sculptures and even manuscripts, especially on such key locations like Tenochtitlan, not only represented and even reproduced key elements of the Aztec religion, but also reminded the subjects of wealth and power that permitted their construction and production.
The supreme example of this use of art as a conveyor of political and religious messages is the Mayor of Templo in Tenochtitlan, which was much more than an extremely impressive pyramid. It has been meticulously designed in every detail to represent the sacred snake mountain of the land of Coatepec, so important in Aztec religion and mythology. This mountain was the place where Coatlicue (earth) gave birth to her son Huitzilopochtli (sun), who defeated other gods (stars) led by his sister Koyolksauki (moon). The Huitzilopochtli Temple was built on top of the pyramid along with another in honor of the rain god Tlaloc. Further associations with myth are the serpentine sculptures lining the base and the large Koyolksauki stone carved in c. 1473 AD, also found at the base of the pyramid and depicting the dismembered body of a fallen goddess in relief. Stone, along with other sculptures such as Tisok Stone, linked this cosmic image to the modern defeat of local enemies. In the case of the Koyolhauhiki stone, the defeat of Tlatelolca is mentioned. Finally, the Mayor of Templo was himself a repository of art, for when his interior was examined, a vast appearance of sculptures and art objects buried with the remains of the dead was discovered, and in many cases these works work that the Aztecs themselves were collected from cultures older than theirs. own.
Temples praising the Aztec worldview were also built in the conquered territories. The Aztecs usually left existing political and administrative structures in place, but they imposed their own gods in a hierarchy over local deities, and this was largely done through architecture and art, backed up by sacrificial rites in these new sacred places usually built on previous sacred sites and often in spectacular settings such as mountain peaks.
Aztec imagery spreading throughout the empire includes much lesser known deities than Huitzilopochtli, and there are a surprising number of examples of nature and agricultural gods. Perhaps the most famous are the reliefs of the water goddess Chalchiuhtlicue on the Malinche hill near ancient Tula. These and other works of Aztec art were most often produced by local artists and may have been commissioned by government officials or private colonists from the Aztec center. Architectural art, cave paintings of gods, animals and shields, and other art objects were found throughout the empire from Puebla to Veracruz and especially around cities, hills, springs and caves. In addition, these works are usually unique, which indicates the absence of any organized workshops.
Masterpieces
The large circular Tizoka stone (carved in 1485 AD from basalt) is a masterful mixture of cosmic mythology and real politics. It was originally used as a surface for human sacrifice, and since these sacrifices were usually defeated warriors, it is fitting that the reliefs around the edge of the stone depict the Aztec ruler Tizoka attacking warriors from Matlazzinki, an area conquered by Tizoko in the late 15th century CE. The defeated are also portrayed as chichimecs, that is, landless barbarians, while the victors wear the noble dress of the revered ancient Toltec. The upper surface of the stone with a diameter of 2.67 m depicts an eight-pointed solar disk. The Tizoka Stone is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
The massive basalt statue of the Coatlicue (carved during the last half century of the Aztec reign) is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Aztec sculpture. The goddess is represented in a terrifying form with two serpentine heads, clawed legs and arms, a necklace of dismembered hands and human hearts with a skull pendant, and a writhing serpent skirt. Possibly one in four and representing a revelation of female power and terror, the 3.5m tall statue leans forward slightly, so the overall dramatic effect of the play is so emotional that it is understandable why the statue was actually reburied several times after its initial excavation in 1790. year. The Coatlicue statue is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
The Sunstone, also known as the Calendar Stone (despite not functioning), must be the most recognizable art object created by any of the great civilizations of Mesoamerica. Discovered in the 18th century A.D. near the cathedral in Mexico City, the stone was carved c. 1427 A.D. E. And shows the solar disk, which represents the five successive worlds of the sun from Aztec mythology. The basalt stone, 3.78 m in diameter and almost a meter thick, was once part of the Templo Mayor complex in Tenochtitlan. In the center of the stone is an image of either the sun god Tonatiuch (Day of the Sun), or Johualtonatiuch (Night Sun), or the original earthly monster Tlaltehukhtli, in the latter case representing the final destruction of the world when the fifth sun fell to Earth. Around the central face at four points are four more suns, which successively replaced each other after the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca fought for control of the cosmos until they reached the epoch of the 5th Sun. On either side of the central face are two jaguar heads or paws, each holding a heart, representing the earthly realm. The two heads in the lower center represent fire serpents, and their bodies run around the perimeter of the stone, each ending in a tail. The four cardinal and intercardinal directions are also indicated by larger and smaller dots, respectively.
As one of the latest examples of the wealth of Aztec art that has survived the best destructive efforts of their conquerors, there is the eagle warrior from Tenochtitlan. This figure appears to be about to run, is in terracotta and was made in four separate pieces. This Knight Eagle wears a helmet representing a bird of prey, has wings and even clawed legs. Remnants of plaster suggest that the figure was once covered in real feathers for an even more lifelike effect. Initially, he would have stood with a partner, on either side of the doorway.
CONCLUSION
After the fall Aztec empire local art production declined.
Ancient Aztec culture in brief
However, some Aztec projects lived in the works of local artists hired by Augustinian monks to decorate their new churches in the 16th century AD. The production of manuscripts and pen continued, but only at the end of the 18th century AD. an interest in the art and history of Precolumbus would lead to a more systematic exploration of what lies beneath the foundations of modern Mexican cities. Gradually, an increasing number of Aztec artifacts revealed that there was ever any doubt, proof that the Aztecs were some of the most ambitious, creative and eclectic artists Mesoamerica has ever produced.
112. Myths of the Aztecs in religious and cultural traditions
Temples in honor of the gods. The legends and myths of the Aztecs were closely associated with the religious life of this people. The numerous gods of the Aztec pantheon were dedicated to magnificent temples that were lifted to the tops of the pyramids. In the center of the Aztec capital was a giant truncated five-step pyramid. Its base area probably reached 1000 m 2. At the top of the pyramid, at a height of about 30 m, there were two temples. Ladders of 114 steps led to the sanctuaries, arranged in such a way that the rising procession on each ledge skirted the structure. According to Spanish reports, one of them contained a giant image of Huitzilopochtli, adorned with a chain of gold and silver hearts. Nearby was probably the Tezcatlipoca sanctuary. Huge statues deities were placed in front of altars, on which sacrificial gifts were placed.
During lavish celebrations held twice a year, a huge image of Huitzilopochtli was made from bread dough with honey. After performing religious rites, the participants of the holiday in a solemn atmosphere divided it into pieces and ate it.
Finds in Teotihuacan. In the place where the Sun and Moon were once born, the Indians, the predecessors of the Aztecs, erected pyramids and built magnificent temples. Archaeologists have unearthed the giant Pyramid of the Sun and its smaller copy, the Pyramid of the Moon. The height of the Pyramid of the Sun may have reached 71 meters. It was loaded with 765 thousand cubic meters of building material. Once upon a time, there was a temple on its top, but today there is practically nothing left of it. The majestic structure amazed the imagination of the Aztecs. They considered him the creation of giants. Not far from the Pyramid of the Sun, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl was discovered. It was decorated with snake heads.
Human sacrifice
Sacrifices. If the legend about the birth of the Sun and the Moon indicated that the gods sacrificed themselves for the sake of people, then this led to the conclusion that people should sacrifice the most dear and valuable to the gods. To supply the gods with energy and thus to postpone the inevitable death of the human race, they must be fed with the blood of people. Sacrifices, the Aztecs believed, were necessary to maintain life on earth: human blood nourished the sun, caused rains and ensured the earthly existence of man.
In some rituals, a chosen one was sacrificed, who had the honor of embodying a deity. The Aztecs had a widespread custom - every year they elected a handsome young man who had no physical disabilities, who was considered the embodiment of Tezcatlipoca. He was treated like a deity, satisfying any of his desires, and after a year was solemnly sacrificed.
Bloody ritual. Often the victim was killed by the priests, ripping open the chest with a knife and ripping out the heart. Four priests, painted black, in black robes, grabbed the victim by the arms and legs and threw it on the sacrificial stone. The fifth priest, dressed in purple robes, ripped open her chest with a sharp obsidian dagger and pulled out her heart with his hand, which he then threw at the foot of the statue of the god. Almost every day a holiday of some god was celebrated, so human blood flowed continuously.
In some cases, the Aztecs limited themselves to bloodletting through the thorns of the magi plant.
The victims are on fire. No less wild and terrible was the cult of the fire god Huehueteotl.
The most important and significant achievements of the Aztecs
In honor of him, the priests kindled a huge bonfire in the temple and, having tied the prisoners of war, threw them into the fire and slowly burned them. Sometimes the Aztecs staged "gladiatorial battles": they tied a prisoner to a sacrificial stone and gave him a wooden weapon, with which he was supposed to defend himself against the attacks of many well-armed soldiers.
On special occasions, women and children were sacrificed. Women who fell into a state of ecstasy after many hours of performing ritual dances turned into an offering to the goddess of the earth. The priests killed babies bought from beggar parents with knives during a drought, hoping that the rain god Tlaloc would have mercy and give the fields the necessary moisture.
The Aztec state constantly had to worry about providing sacrifices to the insatiable gods. During the solemn consecration of the temple of the god of war in Tenochtitlan, held in 1486, 20 thousand prisoners were killed, and at the coronation of one of the last rulers - Montezuma - 12 thousand soldiers died.
Myths in art and literature. Aztec mythology had a significant impact on the visual arts, literature, philosophy of this people. In honor of the gods, the Aztecs performed a variety of ritual dances, religious dramas, and composed poetic hymns. Here is a fragment of one of them, addressed to the goddess of corn and fertility, Chicomecoatl:
O venerable goddess of the seven ears! Arise, wake up! O our mother, you are leaving us today, You are leaving us orphans, You are leaving for your country Tlalocan!
Calendar stone
"Calendar stone". At the end of the 15th century. the main temple of the capital of the Aztecs was decorated with an amazing stone disc - "Calendar stone" ("Stone of the Sun"). It was a black-gray basalt disc with a diameter of 3.66 meters and weighing almost 24 tons. On it were depicted the signs of the five times (five Suns), which are told in the legends. In the middle of the stone was an image of the Fifth Sun. Concentric circles circled him. One of them contains the signs of the twenty days of the Aztec calendar. In the next circle were the signs "turquoise" and "jade", meaning the words "jewel" and "sky". Behind them were the symbols of the stars, which were crossed by the rays of the sun. Two large fiery serpents, symbolizing time, flanked the stone.
When the conquistadors invaded Mexico, the "Calendar Stone" was thrown from the top of the pyramid. The Europeans feared that, seeing him, the Indians would try to return to their former life. Therefore, the stone was buried in the ground. An amazing creation of the Aztecs was discovered by chance in the 18th century. Today, the "Calendar Stone" takes pride of place among the exhibits of the National Historical Museum in the capital of Mexico.
Aztecs and modern Mexico. The memory of the Aztecs and their legendary wanderings survived even after their beautiful capital was destroyed by the conquistadors, and the modern city of Mexico City arose in its place. One of the most beautiful squares in the city is called "Square of Three Cultures". One part of it has been turned into a museum, where you can see the Aztec buildings found by archaeologists.
The image of an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its beak can be seen today on the state emblem of the Mexican Republic. The highest order of this country is called the "Aztec Eagle" ("Aguila Azteca").
Aztec lifestyle
Economy. The Aztec diet was based on corn, beans, pumpkin, numerous varieties of chili peppers, tomatoes and other vegetables, as well as chia and amaranth seeds, a variety of fruits from tropical zone and the prickly pear-shaped nopal cactus growing in semi-deserts. Vegetable food was supplemented by the meat of domesticated turkeys and dogs, game, and fish. Of all these ingredients, the Aztecs knew how to cook very nutritious and healthy stews, cereals, sauces. From cocoa beans, they prepared a fragrant frothy drink intended for the nobility. An alcoholic drink pulque was prepared from agave juice.
Agave also provided wood fiber for making coarse clothing, cords, nets, bags and sandals. The finer fiber came from cotton, which was cultivated outside the Mexico City Valley and brought into the Aztec capital. Only noble people had the right to wear clothes made of cotton. Men's hats and loincloths, women's skirts and blouses were often covered with intricate patterns.
Located on the island of Tenochtitlan, it expanded with the "floating gardens" of the chinampa. Aztec farmers built them in shallow water from tied baskets with silt and algae and strengthened them by planting willows along the edges. A network of interconnected canals formed between the artificial islands, which served for irrigation and transportation of goods and supported the habitat of fish and waterfowl. Agriculture on chinampa was possible only in the vicinity of Tenochtitlan and in the southern lakes, near the cities of Xochimilco and Chalco, since the springs here kept the water fresh, while in the central part of Lake Texcoco it was saltier and therefore unsuitable for agriculture. In the middle of the 15th century. The Aztecs built a powerful dam across the lake to store fresh water for Tenochtitlan and protect the city from flooding. The engineering and architectural achievements of the Aztecs, who did not know pack animals, wheels and metal tools, were based solely on the efficient organization of labor.
However, the chinampa and the lands of the Mexico City Valley could not feed the growing urban population. By 1519, from 150 to 200 thousand people lived in Tenochtitlan, the population of the second largest city of Texcoco reached 30 thousand, and in other cities lived from 10 to 25 thousand people. The share of the aristocracy was growing, and among other urban strata, a significant share were those who consumed but did not produce food: artisans, merchants, scribes, teachers, priests and military leaders.
Food was delivered to the cities as a tribute collected from the conquered peoples, or brought in by merchants and surrounding farmers for sale in the market. In large cities, markets functioned daily, and in small cities they opened every five or twenty days. The largest market in the state of the Aztecs was organized in the satellite city of Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco: according to the estimates of the Spanish conquistador, from 20 to 25 thousand people gathered here every day. You could buy anything here, from tacos and feathers to gems and slaves. At the service of visitors were always barbers, porters and judges, who monitored the order and honesty of transactions.
The conquered peoples regularly, once every three months or six months, paid tribute to the Aztecs. They delivered food, clothing, military vestments, polished jadeite beads and bright tropical bird feathers to the cities of the triple alliance, and also provided various kinds of services, including escorting captives assigned to sacrifice.
Traders undertook long and perilous journeys to bring valuable goods to Aztec cities, and many amassed hefty riches. Merchants often served as informants and ambassadors in lands outside the empire.
Social organization. Aztec society was strictly hierarchical and was divided into two main classes - the hereditary aristocracy and the plebs. The Aztec nobility lived in luxury in magnificent palaces and had many privileges, including wearing special clothes and insignia and polygamy, through which alliances were established with the aristocracy of other city-states. The nobles were destined for high posts and the most prestigious activities, it was composed of military leaders, judges, priests, teachers and scribes.
The lower class consisted of farmers, fishermen, artisans, merchants. In Tenochtitlan and neighboring towns, they lived in special quarters called "kalpulli" - a kind of community. Each kalpulli had its own allotment of land and its own patron god, its own school, paid the communal tax and fielded warriors. Many kalpulli were formed by profession. For example, bird feather makers, stone carvers or traders lived in special areas. Some farmers were assigned to the possessions of aristocrats, who were paid more in labor and taxes than the state.
However, for all its strength, class barriers could be overcome. Most often, the way to the top was opened by military prowess and the capture of prisoners on the battlefield. Sometimes the son of a commoner, dedicated to a temple, eventually became a priest. Skilled artisans who made luxury goods or merchants could, despite the lack of inheritance rights, earn the favor of the ruler and become rich.
Slavery was widespread in Aztec society. As punishment for theft or non-payment of a debt, the perpetrator could be temporarily given into slavery to the victim. It often happened when a person sold himself or his family members into slavery on agreed terms. Sometimes slaves were bought in markets for human sacrifice.
Education and lifestyle. Children were homeschooled until about 15 years of age. Boys mastered military affairs and learned to manage the economy, and girls, who were often married at this age, knew how to cook, spin and run a household. In addition, both of them received professional skills in pottery and the art of making bird feathers.
Most adolescents went to school at 15, although some started school at 8. The children of the nobility were sent to the Kalmekak, where, under the guidance of the priests, they were trained in military affairs, history, astronomy, administration, social institutions, and rituals. Their duties were also charged with collecting firewood, cleaning churches, participating in various public works, and donating blood during religious rites. The children of commoners attended the telpochalli of their city quarter, where they studied mainly military affairs. Both young men and women also attended schools called "kuikakalli" ("house of song"), designed to teach liturgical chants and dances.
Women, as a rule, were involved in raising children and doing housework. Some were trained in crafts and midwifery, or were initiated into religious sacraments, after which they became priestesses. Upon reaching the age of 70, men and women were honored and received a number of privileges, including the permission to consume the alcoholic drink pulque without restrictions.
Belief in life after death was accompanied by certain ideas about what awaits the deceased. A warrior who died in battle or was sacrificed was honored to accompany the Sun on its path from sunrise to zenith. Women who died in childbirth - so to speak, on their battlefield - accompanied the Sun from zenith to sunset. The drowned and those killed by lightning fell into a blooming paradise, the abode of the rain god Tlalocan. Most of the deceased Aztecs, as it was believed, did not go beyond the lower underworld, Miktlana, where the god and goddess of death ruled.
Wars of conquest and empire management. Each Aztec city-state had one or more rulers called tlatoani (orator). Power was hereditary and passed from brother to brother or from father to son. However, the inheritance of honorary titles did not take place automatically, but required the approval of the highest circles of the city nobility. Thus, the legitimacy of the power of each new ruler was ensured both by the divine right of inheritance and by the public recognition of his merits. The rulers lived in luxury, but not in idleness, since they were obliged to exercise government, pass verdicts in difficult court cases, observe the proper execution of religious rituals and protect their subjects. Since some city-states fell under the rule of others, some rulers were considered superior to others, and the ruler of Tenochtitlan was recognized as the main one.
The service of the rulers consisted of advisers, military leaders, priests, judges, scribes and other officials. The imperial conquests required the expansion of the bureaucratic apparatus at the expense of tribute collectors, governors and chiefs of garrisons. The conquered peoples enjoyed relative freedom. City-states were generally allowed to maintain their ruling dynasties as long as tribute was paid carefully. New territories were part of the empire in various ways - some tenochka peoples conquered and forced to pay tribute on a regular basis, others were persuaded to union by negotiations, marriage ties and gifts. The city-states, conquered by the tripartite alliance in the early era of its existence, by the beginning of the 16th century. were already deeply integrated into the imperial structure. Their rulers participated in the wars of conquest tenochki, receiving awards in the form of titles and lands.
War was the most important sphere of life for the Aztecs. Successful wars enriched the empire and provided an opportunity for individual warriors to move up the social ladder. The capture of a prisoner for sacrifice was considered the main valor; a warrior who captured four enemy warriors was promoted in rank.
Religion. The Aztec polytheistic pantheon included many gods and goddesses. The gods-demiurges are represented by the mysterious unpredictable Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror"), the fire god Chiutecuhtli and the famous Quetzalcoatl ("Feathered Serpent"), "who gave people maize." Since the life of the Aztecs largely depended on agriculture, they worshiped the gods of rain, fertility, maize, etc. The gods of war, such as Huitzilopochtli of the tenochkov, were associated with the Sun.
For each deity, the Aztecs erected temples, where the priests and priestesses sent his cult. The main temple of Tenochtitlan (46 m high) was crowned with two shrines dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and the rain god Tlaloc. This temple towered in the middle of a vast fenced area, where other temples, chambers of warriors, a priestly school and a ritual ball court were located. Sophisticated religious rituals included festivities, fasts, chants, dances, incense and rubber incense, and ritual drama, often involving human sacrifice.
According to Aztec mythology, the universe was divided into thirteen heavens and nine nether worlds. The created world went through four epochs of development, each of which ended with the death of the human race: the first from the jaguars, the second from hurricanes, the third from the worldwide fire, and the fourth from the flood. The modern Aztec era of the "Fifth Sun" was to end with terrible earthquakes.
Human sacrifice, which was an essential part of Aztec religious rituals, was practiced in order to supply the gods with energy and thereby delay the inevitable death of the human race. Sacrifices, the Aztecs believed, were necessary to maintain a sustainable life cycle; human blood nourished the sun, caused rains and ensured the earthly existence of man. Some forms of sacrifice were limited to bloodletting through the thorns of the maguei plant, but often the sacrifice was killed by the priests, ripping open the chest with a knife and ripping out the heart. In some rituals, a chosen one was sacrificed, who had the honor to embody a deity, while in others, many prisoners were killed.
Achievements of science and art. The Aztecs had a cyclical time count. They combined the solar 365-day calendar with the ritual 260-day calendar. According to the first, the year was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, to which at the end 5 so-called were added. unlucky days. The solar calendar was applied to the agricultural cycle and mainstream religious practices. The ritual calendar, used for prophecies and predictions of human destiny, contained 20 names of the days of the month (“rabbit”, “rain”, etc.) in combination with the numbers from 1 to 13. A newborn, along with the name of his birthday (like “Two Deer "or" Ten Eagle ") also received a prediction of his fate. So, it was believed that Two Rabbits would be a drunkard, and One Snake would deserve fame and fortune. Both calendars were combined in a 52-year cycle, at the end of which the lived years disappeared like the wind blows away a bundle of 52 reeds, and a new cycle began. The end of each 52-year cycle threatened the destruction of the universe.
The Aztecs created an extensive corpus of oral literature, represented by the genres of epic, hymn and lyric poetry, religious chants, drama, legends and tales. In tone and theme, this literature is also very diverse and ranges from praising military valor and the exploits of ancestors to contemplation and reflection on the essence of life and the purpose of man. Poetic exercises and debates were constantly practiced among the nobility.
The Aztecs showed themselves as the most skillful builders, sculptors, stone carvers, potters, jewelers, weavers. The art of making products from the bright feathers of tropical birds was especially honored. Feathers were used to decorate shields of warriors, clothes, standards, and headdresses. Jewelers worked with gold, jade, rock crystal and turquoise, showing extraordinary skill in creating mosaics and ornaments.
Literature:
Wayan J. History of the Aztecs. M., 1949
Leon-Portilla M. Philosophy of the Nagua. M., 1961
Kinzhalov R. Art ancient America... M., 1962
Sodi D. Great Cultures of Mesoamerica. M., 1985
History of the Literatures of Latin America, vol. 1.M., 1985
Kinzhalov R. Eagle, Quetzal and Cross. M., 1991
Despite the efforts of historians, archaeologists and other specialists who study the events of the past years, antiquity still remains partially covered with mysteries. And modern discoveries and found artifacts, opening the veil of secrets, cause surprise and admiration. The civilizations of the Incas, Aztecs and Mayans are very interesting, since their life and technologies were advanced, and even today many points remain unclear to us.
The ancestors of this civilization came from the north to the place of settlement 10 thousand years ago, after the end of the ice age, but the culture of these Indians, as they used to believe, began to form in 2000 BC, that is, after about 6 thousand years. after the development of the area.
They had their own structure of government, in which power was given only to the "descendants of the gods." But the rest of the people had a lot of important things to do. Agriculture, for example.
In this area, the Mayans developed a good technology: in areas flooded by swamps, embankments were made of earth, and where the soil was dry, colossal canals were drawn from the sea and rivers. By the way, these water communications were actively used as transport, the Indians hollowed out boats from logs. On their lands, they were among the first to cultivate corn, legumes, cocoa. And also nightshade: tobacco, potatoes and tomatoes, the cultivation of which was later adopted by the whole world.
Before colonization, in the South and North America only the Maya invented writing. It was a set of hieroglyphs and "icons" - stylized images of what they were supposed to represent. Among their achievements is simple mathematics: only addition and subtraction were used, but the Mayan counting system had the concept of zero, in contrast to the Mayan contemporaries from the Old World.
There was also medicine, descriptions of about two diseases were found in special books, and medicinal plants were grown for their treatment.
People collected jade and shells, from which artisans then made figurines and household items, using tools: saws, drills and abrasive dust as polish. Researchers were surprised by the blue paint found in ancient cities. Its recipe is still not clear. She does not fade, she is not afraid high temperature, and is not even destroyed by acids.
The Indians lived in abundance due to their hard work and developed trade. Various things and products were in circulation: from shells to tools, coastal cities used salt as currency, and residents of settlements remote from the sea, settled with cocoa grains, however, just an exchange was quoted.
The Mayans were very worried about astronomy, in which they achieved some success. Compiled several calendars, with negligible errors even by modern standards. For the sake of this activity, they rebuilt several observatories, the windows in them exactly corresponded to the trajectories of the observed objects. All their observations were strictly documented in sacred books.
The entire Mayan state consisted of 200 cities, of which about 10% were megalopolises, with a population of 50 thousand inhabitants. And most cities delighted the eye with architectural masterpieces. Many buildings stand on pyramid-shaped foundations, and the higher the pyramid, the more important the object is. The cladding of the houses is made of limestone, and in some places there are ornate patterns and stucco moldings. Columns and mosaics are visible in general buildings. This luxurious infrastructure even included a ball court. This game is called.
In 1441, the history of the Maya flourishing began to come to an end. This is due to climate change, which led to a severe drought. The drought, in turn, deprived the people of food - the most essential resource. Against the background of general negative sentiments, the existing structure began to disintegrate and the once huge united society was divided into small tribes. The last straw was the conquistadors. At the beginning of the 16th century, the colonists came to these lands, and by the middle of it they "finished off" culture and civilization, and those who managed to defend themselves and flee died from viruses and diseases brought from overseas.
This civilization is the youngest, as it began to form only by the 12th century. Which, by the way, did not prevent it from becoming the largest (6-12 million people) in pre-Columbian America, and conquering large areas. The place where the empire was founded contributed to its development. The fertile land and climate provided a consistently rich harvest, so less attention could be paid to agriculture and focus on war.
But the conquest of other peoples did not begin with violence; ambassadors came to foreigners several times, peacefully offered to join, presented gifts and gifts. And only after that, in case of refusal, were they taken up for military action. The Incas were armed with bows, axes, stones. As well as psychological impact. As they advanced, the soldiers shouted loudly, played wind musical instruments and drums. This greatly demoralized the enemy, and it became much easier to defeat him.
The conquered tribes were treated loyally, did not interfere with their traditions and customs. They were required only to recognize the emperor, respect the Inca religion and pay the tax. Attempts to revolt by subjects were nipped in the bud. To avoid a relapse, half of the rebels settled in different cities, and more loyal citizens settled in the other half.
It is not for nothing that the Inca army is considered so powerful. From the age of 10, the boys went to the "exercises". Experienced commanders prepared children for hand-to-hand combat, handling weapons, and gave them knowledge of tactics.
For the most part, the people were engaged in war and agriculture - they grew sunflower, pineapple, pepper. But there were also many specialists in other fields. They are one of the few Indians who knew how to smelt metal. And there are many deposits of gold and silver discovered by them and are being developed now. There was so much gold that the cladding of some buildings was made of this metal.
One of the significant achievements of the Incas is their colossal network of roads throughout the state. Most of the paths were simply trampled, but the damp earth, so that it would not sour, was poured with a mixture of stones and clay. And if the route ran through a swamp, then a dam of cobblestones was built on this place. In places where a cliff or a river crossed the road, bridges were built on piles or hinged. And along the roads, warehouses were organized every 3 km. post buildings, in each of which there was a messenger. The parcel itself was passed from one to another, according to the principle of a relay race, which allowed the parcel to overcome up to 400 km. per day.
Although the Incas did not have a written language, they had a unique accounting system called "kipu". The records were kept on a half-meter string. The color of the rope meant provisions, people, and so on. To designate one, ten, hundreds, a knot with one loop was knitted. To show two, twenty, two hundred, they tied a knot with two loops, and so on by analogy. Moreover, this system worked without errors, and largely thanks to it, there was no money in the state, there was an exchange, and various products were strictly distributed among the people by the government.
Everything was organized so well that there were no rich and poor, everyone lived in prosperity, even the disabled, they were supported by taxes. There was practically no crime, because for this they were most often executed.
The main animal for the empire was the llama. She was a vehicle, a source of meat, fertilizers and wool.
Amazingly, even then, Inca healers were using penicillin. They did not open it and did not know what it was, but they worked with the mold in which it is contained.
The life of this empire ended almost simultaneously with the Maya. The colonialists also came, but traitors also joined them, and the Spaniards quite easily destroyed civilization.
They began to appear in parallel with the Incas, in 1256, at the peak of their heyday, the population was about 10 million. Due to the fact that the race is relatively young, they adopted a lot of knowledge and achievements from more ancient neighbors, and knew how to use them effectively.
But the writing was also sad, because of the conquest they did not have time to develop it, instead they used drawings.
But that didn’t stop us from building a life of luxury. It is believed that it was the Aztecs who lived more beautiful than the rest. There was even something like landscape design: beautiful planting of trees and bushes around houses, bird cages, and stone aquariums.
And the urban infrastructure included restaurants, hotels, hairdressers, pharmacies, theaters, tluttle stadiums, which had "bookmakers". They even built educational institutions where they taught crafts, military training, history, trade and religion.
Social strata were also diverse: nobles, warriors, merchants, ordinary townspeople, slaves and the lowest caste - prisoners of war.
Basically, this empire existed at the expense of tribute from the captured cities. But paradoxically, the occupied territories were getting better. And only one people they could not capture - Purepecha. But they still contacted and traded with them.
Aztec achievements include: mining of metals and coal; construction of aqueducts - stone troughs for water supply; trained healers and cultivated medicinal plants, many are unknown even in our time.
The diet consisted of foods such as turkey, shrimp, corn, tomatoes, vanilla, and more.
The process of growing plants was technological: piles were driven into the lake on which a platform with earth was located. This method gave up to 7 harvests per year. So they planted the food crops listed above, as well as cotton.
With the arrival of the Spaniards, as well as all other indigenous peoples, the Aztecs quickly came to an end. The conquest was helped by the fact that they were mistaken for gods and were not hindered in any way.
the name "Aztecs" was coined
Many people know that the Aztecs were very fond of chocolate, sacrificed a large number of people to their pagan gods and were eventually defeated by the Spaniards. In the eyes of modern people, they are presented as a warlike barbarian people, in large part because of the number of people they killed.
However, despite popular belief, they also had their own culture. Social system of the Aztecs was incredibly difficult, and education, family and creativity played a large role in their society. Even their slavery system was well developed and not at all like what people imagine when they hear about slavery.
In short, although at first glance they appear to be psychopaths, aztecs are not so simple. Below you can find out ten interesting facts about the Aztecs, which will allow you to better understand their history and way of life.
10. Creativity
Despite the seeming savagery Aztecs- they were very creative people. The Aztecs were fond of sculpture and pottery, as well as artistic painting. They developed artistic symbols that were tattooed on the Aztec warriors, describing their accomplishments. They also loved poetry.
Aztecs engaged in team sports, in particular one of the most popular sports among them was the Mesoamerican ball game. The game used a rubber ball, which was an advanced enough item for their time, and the matches were played on a field called Tlachtli. The main task of the game is to throw the ball through a small stone ring, but it was a very difficult game. The ball was not supposed to fall to the ground, and the players could only touch it with their head, elbows, knees and hips.
9. Compulsory school attendance
Although the Aztecs and placed great emphasis on the fact that parents themselves should properly educate their children; they also had compulsory schooling for all children. Schools were different for boys and girls, and also divided according to the students' belonging to different castes.
Upper class children attended the Calmecac School, where they were taught history, astronomy, art, and how to rule by the priests. Boys of the lower castes attended the Cuicacalli school, where they were trained for military service. The girls were sent to separate schools, and most of the education consisted of teaching household chores such as cooking and weaving.
8. Struck by the disease
Many believe that the Spaniards defeated the Aztecs with the help of their superior military forces, but this is far from the truth. In fact, the first attacks of the Spaniards were successfully repelled, and they had to quickly retreat. The Aztecs had a good chance of defeating the Spaniards, and in general the war was fought on an equal footing.
It can be safely argued that if not for the smallpox, which the Aztecs caught from the Europeans, and from which most of their population, including leaders, died, then the Aztecs would hardly have lost the war against the Spaniards. The impact of European diseases was devastating - an estimated twenty million Mexicans died in just 5 years from diseases brought by the Spaniards.
7. Wrong name
The Aztecs are known to us all under this name, but in fact they never called themselves that. The Western peoples who came up with the name "Aztecs" most likely took it from the name Aztlan (Aztlan) - a mythical area in northern Mexico, in which the ancestors of the Aztecs allegedly lived in the 12th century. However, the Aztecs themselves called themselves Mexica, hence the name of the country Mexico.
6. Advanced documentation system
The Aztecs had their own language called N'ahuatl, the alphabet of which was a kind of pictographic writing. The knowledge of how to record information was known only among priests and specially trained scribes. The entries were made on paper made from tree bark or deer hide. They usually wrote with charcoal, after which the recordings were given a different color using vegetable juice and other materials.
The Aztecs kept tax records, historical records, kept written records of religious sacrifices and other ceremonies, and even wrote poetry. Sometimes they collected the recordings in impromptu books, which they called codices.
5. Burial customs
We all know stories about what happens when something is built on a former Indian burial site, but aztecs didn't worry when they had to build something on the graves of their ancestors. Moreover, the Aztecs quite often buried their ancestors either right under their house or, at least, next to it.
If the deceased Aztec belonged to the upper strata of society, he was usually cremated. The Aztecs believed that cremation would help change the soul of a deceased warrior or ruler, and thus they would quickly get to their version of paradise. Sometimes the Aztecs killed the dog and buried or cremated him with a person so that he would help on a journey through the afterlife.
4. Selling children
Selling their children by the poor Aztecs was not considered unusual in their society. Moreover, everything was not limited to children, the poor sometimes sold themselves into slavery. In many cases, when someone went bankrupt and saw no other way out, selling children into slavery brought them some income, and if the child worked well and worked hard, they could end up buying themselves out of slavery. Some remained slaves for most of their lives, which is not surprising since being a slave in the Aztec society was not so bad. Slaves could marry, have children, and even own their own piece of land.
3. Polygamy
Aztec men were allowed to marry multiple wives, but there were several strict rules associated with such a relationship. The first wife a man married was considered his "main" wife and was the only one with whom he performed the wedding ceremony. The rest of the wives were "secondary", but they were officially recognized in the documents.
Although the first wife was considered the most important, the man had to treat all his wives with equal respect. The man was considered the head of the family, but women still had sufficient influence in relationships and were well treated in Aztec society. Additional wives contributed to the family's wealth and were considered a trait high position in society, which allowed them to be highly respected in society. Divorce was permitted in some cases, but adultery on either side of the marriage was punishable by death.
2. Slavery
Slavery in the Aztec society was different from the European system and operated according to different rules. Children of slaves did not automatically fall into slavery, and slaves were allowed to possess anything - even their own slaves. If a slave got into the temple, they were freed, and they were also freed if they managed to escape from their master and step on human excrement. If a slave tried to escape, only his master or his relatives could chase him. Slaves could even redeem their freedom. The Aztec slavery system was unique and more akin to contractual dependence than to the modern concept of slavery.
1. Human sacrifice
Although the most common theory about Aztec sacrifices states that they simply performed rituals dedicated to pagan gods, anthropologist Michael Harner thinks differently. According to Harner's estimates, aztecs sacrificed annually about 20,000 people. People who were sacrificed were often eaten during the ritual. Harner theorized that the cannibalism disguised as sacrifice was due to the Aztec diet lacking in meat. The fact that the Aztecs ate each other due to protein starvation, of course, has not been proven, but the signs of the existence of cannibalism are hard to miss.
The Aztecs are usually presented to us as tough warriors who constantly conquered foreign territories and practiced brutal rituals with human sacrifice. Nevertheless, the culture of the Aztecs left to mankind interesting developments in the field of agriculture and applied arts. We still use some of them.
The Aztec language ("Nahuatl") is still spoken by about a million people. Cochineal, "floating gardens" and many recipes using medicinal plants are also the heritage of the Aztecs. As for the cruel and strange customs adopted in Aztec society, they can only be understood in the context of history.
The wars fought by the Aztecs were necessary in some respects. The ancestors of the Aztecs ("Chichimecs") began to settle in southern Mexico in the early 12th century. When they arrived in the Valley of Mexico, several city-states already existed there. For more than half a century, the Chichimec tribes shunned other peoples and settled on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. It was there, according to legend, that they saw an eagle sitting on a cactus - a sign that promised them the protection of God Huitzilopochtli. In 1325 A.D. The Aztecs created their city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) and started a war to seize neighboring lands. In 1430, an alliance was concluded with two large settlements... This was the birth of the Aztec Empire, which flourished for almost 100 years until the arrival of Cortez.
The Europeans, getting acquainted with the culture and way of life of the Aztecs, were surprised at how developed the system of government and education in the state turned out to be. Agricultural methods also generated great interest.
1. Floating gardens.
The lands that the Aztecs received were not very suitable for growing garden crops, and there was practically no good soil on the island. This did not stop the Aztecs from producing enough food. One of the most interesting inventions was the “floating gardens” (chinampas). On the lake, platforms were made of reeds and branches (about 27 × 2 m in size). These "islands" were filled with mud and compost, and willows were planted around to anchor the floating area. Human manure was used as a fertilizer, thus keeping the city clean and feeding the plants.
Thanks to this technology, the Aztecs could feed the entire population, and the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan alone required up to 40 thousand tons of corn per year. Along with corn, beans, pumpkins and domestic animals (turkeys) were grown.
2. General education.
The Aztecs had a strict education obligation. Studying began at home: the girls were shown how to manage the household, the boys mastered the professions of their fathers. The upbringing was very harsh. Young children were given little food so that they could learn to suppress their appetite. The boys had the hardest time: they were exposed to extreme temperatures in order to develop resilience and the "stone heart of a warrior." The punishment for disobedience was even more severe: at the age of 9, boys could be beaten with thorny cacti; forced to inhale smoke from burning chili at the age of 10; at the age of 12, they were tied up and left to lie on a cold, wet rug. Girls, if they did not work well, were beaten with a stick.
At the age of 12-15, all children went to the cuicacalli (song house) school, where they were taught the ritual chants and the religion of their people. The way to school was under the supervision of an elder so that no one was truant.
Beginning at the age of 15, girls no longer attended school, and boys from common families went to "telpochcalli" (military school), where they stayed overnight. Wealthy teenagers were sent to other schools called "calmécac". There, in addition to military training, they were taught architecture, mathematics, painting and history. All priests and officials were graduates of this school.
3. Sports games.
The game "ollama" or "tlachtli" (after the name of the field) is somewhat similar to basketball and football. Walls were erected around the field, which were 3 times the height of the men. At the top of the wall, stone rings were attached, into which you had to hit with a rubber ball using your hips, knees or elbows.
Only noble people could participate in the game, and in case of victory, the team was allowed to try to rob those present. Sometimes human sacrifices were performed on the field.
Spectators often placed bets on one or another team, despite the fact that children from a very early age were forbidden to do so. The loser was sometimes forced to be sold into slavery because he could not pay the debt.
Ollama was not the only dangerous sport played by the Aztecs. So, for example, in the village they set up a large post with ropes tied at the top. Men put on "wings", wrapped a rope around their waist and jumped down. The platform at the top started to rotate, and people had to make 13 revolutions before landing. The Spaniards called it "Volador".
4. Traditional medicine.
Doctors in Aztec society were called "tictil". They were treated with herbal decoctions, extracts and various magical means. The Aztec manuscripts contain 1550 recipes and characteristics of 180 medicinal herbs and trees.
The recipe for "pain and heat in the heart" included ingredients such as gold, turquoise, red coral and a burnt deer heart. Headaches were treated by making an incision in the skull with an obsidian blade.
Agave juice has been widely used as a disinfectant, and the chicalote plant has been used to relieve severe pain. Agave juice is still used against food poisoning and Staphylococcus aureus.
The Spaniards discovered among the Aztecs "passionflower" - a creeping vine, which reminded them of the crown of thorns of Christ. The Aztecs used this plant as a sedative. It has spread in Europe as well.
Alcohol was banned throughout the empire. Only old people over 70 years of age could drink it. Wealthy Aztecs ate cacahuatl hot chocolate, a recipe for which they inherited from the Maya Indians.
5. Cochineal.
