Before the arrival of the Europeans, on the territory of present-day Mexico, many Indian peoples and tribes lived, one of the most interesting and mysterious was the tribe that created the most developed empire of that time (in North America) - the empire of the Aztecs.
Aztec civilization
Aztecs- Indian people in central Mexico. The number is over 1.5 million people. In Nahuatl, the native language of the Aztecs, the word "Aztec" literally means "someone from Aztlan," a mythical place somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztecs" as a term uniting peoples bound by trade, customs, religion and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt and adopted by Mexican scholars of the 19th century as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the native Indian population. The Aztecs themselves called themselves "Meshica", "Tenochka" or "Tlaltelolca" - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word "mexica" (ast. Mexica, from which, in fact, the word Mexico originates), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word "Sun" in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Meshitli (Mexitli, Mextli), type algae growing in Lake Texcoco.
The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had a rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Tescoco) (Spanish. Texcoco), where the city of Mexico City is now located.
The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as nahua because of the common language. According to legend, various groups who later became Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley, around Lake Texcoco, from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes is known for certain - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from. Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven nahuatlaks(“Speakers of Nahuatl”, from the word “tlaca” meaning “person”). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli, which means "left-handed hummingbird." There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus, on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that it was in such a place that a new house should be founded. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.
So, in 1256, the Aztecs settled on a rock washed by a spring and surrounded by aueuete thickets. It was Chapultepec, then the forest. Lake Texcoco stretched before them. By the time of the Aztecs, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided among the coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme power of the ruler of the city of Askapotsalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tenochtitlan in 1325. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.
According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to study; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples, mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they might confuse with the older civilization of Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of the entire culture, the word "toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the Quetzalcoatl cult with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacans.
The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great epochs, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Naui Ollin, the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means "all in wounds" (in Russian it is usually translated "all in buboes"; the smallest and most humble god who suffered pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (literally - "the place of transformation into a god"), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City. Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, therefore he is depicted without a foot and with a bare bone. In some cult forms, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.
The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was ethnically highly diverse; it was more of a unified tribute collection system than a unified management system. Although the cities under Aztec rule were taxed heavily, excavations show a steady increase in the well-being of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was conducted even with enemy cities. The only people who defeated the Aztecs - the Purépecha - were the main manufacturer of copper axes. The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between the conquered cities.
In Mesoamerica, there were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles, and roads were built for walking. Usually road building was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat and even visit the restroom every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers (Painani) constantly ply along these routes, keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.
The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest population explosions- The population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people and by the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panucodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed on the lands of Guatemala. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not obey the Aztecs.
The most important official in Tenochtitlan's government is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of the emperor - Way Tlatoani (azt. HueyTlahtoani) translates roughly as "Great Orator". Tlatoke (azt. tlatoque- "orators") were the aristocracy, the upper class of society. The power of the Tlatoani grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Auizotl's reign, the title "Tlatoani" could already be considered an analogue of the imperial title, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.
From 1397 to 1487, the empire was headed by Tlacaelel ( Tlahcaé
lel from Nahuatl - "brave heart"). He could become tlatoani, but chose to remain in the shadow of the jaguar mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew tlatoani Itzcoatl and brother of Chimalpopoca and Motecusoma Iliuicamin, and bore the title "Sihuacoatl" (in honor of the goddess Chihuacoatl, equivalent to the councilor). As it is written in Ramirez's manuscript, "what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as soon as possible." He was a tough reformer, he created a new structure for governing the country, ordered the burning of most of the Aztec books, claiming that they were all false, and rewrote the history of the Aztecs. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion, placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli, on a par with the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. His feats include (perhaps exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of "flower wars" and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continues to move across the sky.
Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: the maceuali, or the peasantry, and the pilli, or the nobility. Initially, the status of nobility was not inherited, even though the sons pilli had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilli... Over time, social status began to be inherited. Likewise, the Aztec warriors became pilli thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took prisoners in war could become permanent warriors, and over time, military glory and loot in the war made them pill. As soon as an Aztec warrior captured four or five prisoners, he was called tequiua and he could get the rank of Eagle or Jaguar. Later he could get the rank tlacateccatl or tlacochkalcatl... To become tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners. When the young man came of age, he did not cut his hair until he captured his first prisoner. Sometimes two or three young men united for this, then they were called iyak... If after a certain period of time - usually three battles - they could not take the prisoner, they became maceually... It was considered a shame to be a warrior with long hair, meaning no prisoners, but there were those who preferred to be maceuali.
The rich booty of war led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of the traditional Aztec society - post office, or traders. Their activities were not exclusively commercial, the post offices were also good scouts. Their warriors despised them, however, one way or another, they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.
Slaves, or "tlacotin," also constituted an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had much in common with the slavery of classical antiquity. Firstly, slavery was personal, not inherited, the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property, and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they were mistreated, or they had children from their masters, or they were married to their masters. Usually, at the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.
An Aztec could become a slave as a punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves. In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new master. This was usually the lot of unlucky gamblers and old Auini courtesans or prostitutes. Although it was possible to drink pulque, a fermented beverage with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were not allowed to get drunk until they reached the age of sixty. Violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.
As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was "tlutchli" - the Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game of "ulama". This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", which is where the Spanish "ule" comes from (Spanish. hule) meaning rubber. According to other sources, the ball was stone, and the game was unusually cruel - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring, located high enough without causing physical injury. A good "incentive" to play was the fact that the members of the losing team were sacrificed.
Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips. The goal of the game was to throw the ball through the stone ring. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take the public's blankets, so the victory was accompanied by running, shouting and laughing. People were betting on the outcome of the game. Poor people could put their food, pilli could put their riches, "flowed" ( owners) could put their concubines or even cities on the line, and those who had nothing put their freedom and risked becoming slaves. The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or the captain of the winning team (however, according to other sources, the captain and players of the losing team).
In Mesoamerica and South America during the heyday of the Aztec state, sacrifice was widespread; however, the Aztecs practiced them on a special scale, sacrificing people on each of the 18 holidays of their sacred calendar. It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed. Animal offerings were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things - they were broken in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced, people during special ceremonies inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting, and wore special thorns that constantly injure the body.
Blood has been central to the cultures of Mesoamerica. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life).
All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the upper platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim's belly was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim's heart was taken out and lifted up towards the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuaushikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where it was dragged away by the priests. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in the case of prisoners. If faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways - the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tsompantli and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as a gift to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of the remains found in a large temple complex.
There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It is difficult to keep track of the measure here. Aztec chronicles describe how about 84,400 captives were sacrificed in four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the urban population of 120,000 was able to capture, accommodate and dispose of such a number of captives, especially considering that Auizotl sacrificed them with his own hand. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days... Some scholars believe that the death toll could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the death toll was overstated for military propaganda purposes.
The Aztecs led the so-called «
flower wars »
(Spanish. guerrasfloridas) - special raids for capturing captives, for making sacrifices, they called nestlahuali - it was a kind of "debt payment to the gods" so that the sun could shine during the next 52-year cycle. Human soul-heart and soul-blood are necessary so that the world does not collapse - this idea formed the basis of the practice of capturing people in subjugated lands, and the population was ordered to meet warriors with flowers in their hands (one of the reasons that gave the name to the "flower wars").
It is not known whether the Aztecs performed sacrifices before they came to the Anahuac Valley, or whether they absorbed this custom in the same way as many other customs and cultures. Initially, the sacrifices were dedicated to Shipe-Totek, a deity of northern Mesoamerica. The Aztec chronicles state that human sacrifice began during the reign of Tisoc. During the reign of Tlacaelel, human sacrifice became an integral part of the Aztec culture, not only for religious but also for political reasons.
There is little information regarding the cannibalism of the Aztecs. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquest, and none of them speaks of widespread ritual cannibalism. In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to present them as a gift to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, as it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced by turkey or simply thrown away.
After the capture by the Spaniards, the Aztec civilization practically ceased to exist, cities and temples were destroyed, and books were burned ...
The Aztecs belonged to the last wave of Indian tribes who migrated from the more northern regions of the American continent to the Valley of Mexico. The culture of these tribes at first did not have any pronounced features, but gradually they crystallized into a single solid whole - the Aztec civilization. Initially, the tribes lived separately in their village and satisfied their living needs by cultivating the land. Whenever possible, these resources were supplemented by tribute to the conquered peoples. At the head of the tribe was a hereditary leader, who at the same time performed priestly functions. Religious beliefs were characterized by a complex polytheistic system based on the worship of nature, with the emphasis on the worship of one or more gods in special cults.
1168 A.D. - the history of the Aztecs begins. The Aztecs (Meshiks or Tenochki) begin their exodus from the ancestral home of Aztlana, guided by their supreme god of war, Huitzilopochtli. Around 1325, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on the site of the city of Mexico City, which later became the capital of the most powerful state in Mexico. Initially, the tenochki fell into dependence on the city of Kuluacan. It was a huge city that played an important role in the Mexico City Valley. Another major center of this time was the city of Texcoco, located on the eastern shores of the Mexican Lakes. About seventy cities paid tribute to its ruler Kinatsin (1298-1357). His successor Techotlal managed to combine all the dialects of the Valley of Mexico City into one Aztec language.
The Aztec culture was the last link in a long chain of advanced civilizations that flourished and declined in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The oldest of them, the Olmec culture, developed on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 14th and 3rd centuries. BC NS. The Olmecs prepared the ground for the formation of subsequent civilizations, therefore the era of their existence is called pre-classical. They had a developed mythology with an extensive pantheon of gods, erected massive stone structures, were skilled in stone carving and pottery. Their society was hierarchical and narrowly professional; the latter was manifested, in particular, in the fact that specially trained people were involved in religious, administrative and economic issues. These features of Olmec society were further developed in subsequent civilizations.
Public education of the Aztecs in Mexico in the 14th - early 16th centuries. centered in the city of Tenochtitlan until 1348 was dependent on the rulers of the city of Culuacan in 1348-1427. At the end of the 20s of the 15th century, the Aztec ruler Itzcoatl led the "union of three cities" of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and defeated the rulers of Azzopotsalco. As a result of the wars of conquest waged by Itzcoatl and his successors (Montezuma I the Wrathful, ruled in Auizotl 1440-1469; Ashayakatl 1469-1486; Auizotl 1486-1503), not only the valley entered the Aztec kingdom the rivers of Mexico City, but also the whole of Central Mexico. The Aztec kingdom reached its highest flowering under Montezuma II (1503-1519). In the 15th and early 16th centuries. slavery was greatly developed. The main ruler of the Aztec kingdom, the Tlacatecuhtli or Tlatoani, was formally an elected leader, in fact, his power was hereditary. The formation of the main classes of society was not completed. The position of a member of society was determined by his belonging not only to a class, but also to a caste, of which there were over ten in the Aztec kingdom.
By the time the Spaniards arrived at the beginning of the 16th century, the Aztec Empire covered a huge territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km - with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The capital of the empire - Tenochtitlan - over time turned into a huge city, the area of which was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people. This island city was connected with the mainland by three large stone roads - dams, and there was a whole flotilla of canoe boats. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. The core of the city was formed by a ritual - administrative center: a “sacred site” - a 400 m long walled square, inside of which were the main city temples, dwellings of priests, schools, and a ritual ball game playground. Nearby were the ensembles of the magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers - "tlatoani". According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma (more precisely, Moctezuma) II had up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths. Residential quarters were crowded around the center, inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, and soldiers. The huge Main Market and the smaller quarter bazaars traded in local and transported products and goods. The general impression of the magnificent Aztec capital is well conveyed by the words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest - soldier Bercal Diaz del Castillo from the Cortez detachment. Standing on top of a high stepped pyramid, the conquistador looked in amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of the life of a huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various loads, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and from house to house could only be reached by suspension bridges or boats. And we saw ... pagan temples and chapels, reminiscent of towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with whiteness and aroused admiration. "
Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortez after a three-month siege and fierce struggle in 1525. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built a new city - Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of their colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of the Aztec buildings were covered with multi-meter strata of modern life. Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct systematic and extensive archaeological research of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally in the course of excavation in the center of Mexico City are stone sculptures born - the creations of ancient masters. Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s - 80s became a real sensation. XX century. during the excavation of the Main Temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, on Zocalo Square, between cathedral and the presidential palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun and war, the head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings, stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly noteworthy are a round stone with a diameter of over three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Koyolshauhka - the sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pits - hiding places filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people). The newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded the existing ideas about material culture, religion, trade, economic and political ties of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries.
The Aztecs were in that initial phase of social development when the alien prisoner-slave was not yet fully included in the economic mechanism of the emerging class society, when the benefits and advantages that the labor of slaves could give were not yet fully realized. However, the institution of debt slavery had already emerged, spreading to the local poor; the Aztec slave found his place in the new, developing relations of production, but he retained the right of redemption, which, as we know, the "classical" slave was deprived of. Of course, foreign slaves were also involved in economic activity, but slave labor has not yet become the basis of the foundations of this society.
The senseless destruction of thousands of captive slaves on the sacrificial altars of Aztec temples was erected at the basis of the cult. Human sacrifice has become the central event of any holiday. Sacrifices were made almost daily. One person was sacrificed with solemn honors. So, every year from among the prisoners, the most beautiful young man was chosen, who was destined to enjoy all the benefits and privileges of the god of war Tezcatlipoca for a year, so that after this period he would be on the sacrificial stone-altar. But there were also such "holidays" when the priests sent hundreds, and according to some sources, thousands of prisoners to another world. True, it is difficult to believe in the reliability of such statements belonging to eyewitnesses of the conquest, but the dark and cruel, non-compromising Aztec religion with mass human sacrifices knew no limits in its zealous service to the ruling caste aristocracy.
The Aztec state was fragile territorial entity like the many territorial empires of antiquity. The nature of its economy was polymorphic, but it was based on intensive irrigated agriculture. The set of crops cultivated by the Aztecs was typical of the Mexico Valley. These are corn, zucchini, pumpkin, green and red peppers, many types of legumes and cotton. Tobacco was also grown, which the Aztecs smoked mostly in hollow reed stalks, like cigarettes. They loved the Aztecs and chocolate made from cocoa beans. The latter also served as a medium of exchange. Agriculture was an important part of life in Tenochtitlan. Aztec codes, as well as Spanish chronicles, say that Aztec landowners created strips of fertile land built on water using silt and algae from the surrounding swamps. These artificially created fields, chinampas, were divided by canals, and the edges had to be reinforced with wooden supports or specially planted trees to prevent the earth from falling back into the water. Aztec chinampas were surprisingly fertile. Farmers cultivated a wide variety of crops, including maize, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkin, beans, spices and flowers, squash, oilseeds, and cotton. The swamps were drained using a network of canals. The intoxicating drink pulque was made from agave juice.
The Aztecs had few pets. They had several breeds of dogs, one of which was used for food. The most common poultry is turkeys, possibly geese, duck and quail. Crafts played a significant role in the Aztec economy, especially pottery, weaving, and stone and wood processing. There were few metal items. Some of them, such as the finely forged sickle-shaped copper knives, served as a medium of exchange along with the cocoa beans. Gold was used by the Aztecs only for making jewelry, and silver was probably of great value. The most important among the Aztecs was jade and stones that resemble it in color and structure. Crafts separated from agriculture and reached a high level of development.
The market was located in one of the districts of Tenochtitlan called Tlatelolco. From the descriptions of the Spanish soldiers, they had never before seen such a large and well-organized market with such a huge variety of goods as in Tenochtitlan. There was a special place for each type of goods, and all goods were carefully checked. Those who stole or cheated were severely punished. The only type of exchange among the Aztecs was exchange trade. The medium of exchange was cocoa beans, nibs filled with golden sand, pieces of cotton cloth (kuachtli) and the copper knives mentioned above. Due to the high costs of human labor for transportation in the Aztec state, it was reasonable to bring the places of production of goods and products as close as possible to the places of their consumption. Therefore, the population of the cities turned out to be extremely variegated both professionally and socially, and many artisans worked for a significant part of the time in the fields and vegetable gardens. Over long distances, it was profitable to move only the most expensive or the lightest in weight and small in volume products - for example, fabrics or obsidian; on the other hand, the local exchange was unusually lively. The Aztecs had a very well-organized education, disciplines such as religion, astronomy, history of laws, medicine, music and the art of war were taught. The arts of dance and many sports were developed, as well as theater and poetry. They had a ball game very similar to basketball today.
The ruler or king was called "tlatoani". In speeches dedicated to the new ruler, it was emphasized that he was only the representative of Tezcatlipoca on earth, his likeness, an instrument through which the omnipotent deity rules people. The role of the ruler as a mediator between gods and people, or, more precisely, an instrument of the gods.
In the social structure of Aztec society, the following five groups were distinguished: warriors, priests, merchants, commoners, slaves. The first three estates constituted the privileged classes of society, the fourth and fifth groups - its exploited part. The estates were not homogeneous. There was a certain hierarchy within them, determined by the size of property and social status. All classes were clearly divided, and this could be determined even by their clothes. According to one of the laws introduced by Montezuma I, each class had to wear its own type of clothing. This also applied to slaves. The military nobility played a decisive role in Aztec society. The title tekutli ("noble") was usually given to people who held important government and military posts. Most of the civilian ranks were actually the same military. The most noble ones who distinguished themselves in the battle of the war formed a kind of "order", a special alliance of "Eagles" or "Jaguars". The nobility received natural allowance and land plots from the Tlatoani. No one except nobles and leaders could build a house with two floors on pain of death. There was a difference in punishment for offenses for a noble person and a commoner. Moreover, the class norms were often more cruel. So, if a person who was in enemy captivity was of "low origin", then he was not threatened with expulsion from the community and family, while the "noble" was killed by the compatriots themselves, relatives. This reflected the desire to preserve the strength of their position at the top of society.
The priesthood was also among the privileged estates of Aztec society. The conquerors-Aztecs were extremely interested in strengthening the religion, because it, preaching war as the highest valor, and the Aztecs as its most worthy bearers, provided an ideological basis for the policy of conquest, which they carried out throughout their independent history. The priests were in the forefront during military campaigns. They were the first to meet the soldiers returning home at the gates of the capital. The temples increased their wealth through gifts and voluntary donations. It could be a donation of land or part of a tribute to the nobility and Tlatoani. The donation of the population could be for a variety of reasons: fortune-telling, prediction, donations for the sake of the success of their activities. The temples also had their own handicraft production. All income went to the maintenance of the priesthood and the conduct of numerous religious rites. The life of the priesthood was regulated by certain norms. The priest, guilty in connection with the woman, was secretly beaten with sticks, property was taken away, and the house was destroyed. They also killed all those who were involved in this crime. If the priest had unnatural inclinations, then he was burned alive.
The lowest social step in the hierarchy of Aztec society was occupied by slaves. The sources of slavery among the Aztecs were varied. Selling into slavery for theft was practiced. Debt slavery was common. Betrayal in relation to the state or one's immediate master was also punished involuntarily. However, the most characteristic of the ancient Aztec society was patriarchal slavery. Parents could sell their "careless" children into slavery. This happened more often in lean years, when there was a wide slave trade.
The Aztec state consisted of about 500 cities and other settlements, divided into 38 administrative units headed by local rulers or specially sent administrators. To collect tribute, monitor the royal lands and official allotments, there were special officials - kalpish, appointed from the military class. There was also local legal proceedings. Local courts considered only minor crimes, or, the evidence of which is easily proven. The bulk of the cases of ordinary citizens were decided by these courts. There was a special staff of "scribes" to record cases in various institutes. In most cases, the notes were made using pictography, however, sometimes May hieroglyphic writing was also used.
Diverse interpersonal relationships in Aztec society governed marital and family norms. Their most characteristic feature was the unlimited power of father and husband. The basis of the family was marriage, the procedure for the conclusion of which was equally a religious and legal act. It was built, as a rule, on the principle of monogamy, but polygamy was also allowed for wealthy people. There were two types of inheritance - by law and by will. Only sons inherited. The payment for adultery was death in various ways. Blood relatives were punished with death for intimate relationships: the guilty were hanged. However, levirate marriages were allowed. Drunkenness was severely punished. Only people over fifty could consume intoxicating drinks, and a strictly defined amount. Young people caught in drunkenness were punished at school, sometimes beaten to death.
The last Aztec ruler in Tenochitlan was Montezuma II Shokoyotzin (1502-1520). The Spaniards who came to America conquered the continent.
The Aztecs not only worshiped the Feathered Serpent as one of the main inhabitants of the pantheon of their gods, but also well remembered the history of his exile. The priests, striving to keep the people in fear and submissive obedience, constantly reminded of the return of Quetzalcoatl. They convinced the people that the offended deity, who had gone to the east, from the east, would return to punish everyone and everything. Moreover, the legend said that Quetzalcoatl was white-faced and bearded, while the Indians were beardless, beardless and dark! White-faced Spaniards with beards came from the East. Oddly enough, he was the first, and at the same time unconditionally, to believe that the Spaniards are the descendants of the legendary deity Quetzalcoatl, none other than the all-powerful ruler of Tenochtitlan Moctezum, who enjoyed unlimited power. Fear of the divine origin of foreigners paralyzed his ability to resist, and the entire hitherto mighty country, along with a magnificent war machine, was at the feet of the conquerors. The Aztecs should immediately remove their ruler distraught with fear, but the same religion, which inspired the inviolability of the existing order, prevented this. When reason finally defeated religious prejudices, it was too late. As a result, the gigantic empire was wiped off the face of the earth, the Aztec civilization ceased to exist. The rich and distinctive Aztec culture was destroyed by the Spanish conquest from 1519 to 1521. The capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, was razed to the ground by the conquistadors.
Summarizing the history and life of the Aztecs, we can say that their culture was formed from religion and politics. The priests had almost complete power over the people. Perhaps, in history there is hardly any other similar example, when it was religion that turned out to be the decisive factor in the defeat and complete destruction of those to whom it was supposed to serve faithfully. People's lives were completely controlled by laws based on religion. Even clothing and food were strictly regulated. Trade flourished, and anything could be bought in the marketplace of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.
In complete contrast to the orders in European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner to catch the slave. Also, a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities qualified the slave as disobedient. (Disobedience was defined as laziness, escape attempts, and misbehavior.) Disobedient slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. The shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their arrangement made it difficult to escape in crowds or in narrow passages.
When buying a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times the slave was resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold for sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.
However, if the chained slave presented himself in royal palace or a temple, he received freedom.
An Aztec could become a slave as a punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered at her request. The father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay debts could also be sold into slavery.
In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new master. Usually, this was the lot of unlucky gamblers and old "auini" courtesans or prostitutes.
Fun & Games
aztec empire communication
Although it was possible to drink "pulque" (a fermented beverage with a low alcohol content), the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk until they were sixty; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.
As in modern-day Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tluttley, the Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game of ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", which is where the Spanish "ole", meaning rubber, comes from.
According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and the game in it was distinguished by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring, located high enough without causing physical injury.
A participant in the game who fell into the ring with the ball was sacrificed.
The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or the captain of the winning team. (According to other sources, the captain and the players of the losing team were sacrificed).
The sacrifice of the participant who scored the “goal” was a great honor both for himself and for his entire family. Participants who did not show sufficient dexterity during the game remained alive, but together with their families fell to the lowest social stratum of society.
Education
Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents. There was an oral tradition (a set of oral instructions) called hueuetlatolli ("proverbs of the elderly") that conveyed the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs.
There were replicas, and sayings for every occasion, there were words for greeting birth and words for saying goodbye to death.
Boys went to school from the age of 15. There were two types of educational institutions. Tepochkalli taught history, religion, martial arts, as well as trade and crafts (peasant or artisan). In calmeques, where the sons of the pilli went mainly, they focused on the training of leaders (tlaktoks), priests, learned teachers and scribes. They learned rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in tepochkalli, martial arts.
Aztec teachers offered a Spartan learning regime - cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bloodletting with thorns, and endurance tests - with the goal of building a courageous people.
The girls were taught home craft and raising children, they were not taught to read and write.
For gifted children, there were two main possibilities: some were sent to the house of song and dance, and the other to the house of playing ball. Both occupations had a high status.
The Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinamps, on Lake Tnskoco; cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The main foodstuffs of the Aztecs were maize (corn) beans and pumpkin seeds. Chinampa were very efficient and produced up to seven harvests a year, based on current chinampa harvests, they collected food for 180,000 people. Much has been said about the lack of protein in the diet of the Aztecs as an argument in support of the theory of the existence of cannibalism in them, but these statements are unproven: the combination of maize and beans provides the necessary rate of essential amino acids, which removes the problem of lack of proteins. Moreover, the Aztecs had a wide variety of other foods: they caught acocyles, the small shrimp that abound in Lake Texcoco; they harvested the flavoprotein-rich spirulina algae that was used in various types of baked goods; they also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae.
Insects contain more protein than meat, and to this day, they are a delicacy in parts of Mexico. The Aztecs kept pets like turkey and itscuintli (a breed of meat dog), although usually the meat of these animals was intended for special occasions - situations of expressing gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boars, ducks ...
In my opinion, if the Aztecs had cannibalism, then most likely not from a lack of protein or meat, but rather from any religious considerations and traditions, for example, a way to show and feel the power of greatness and superiority over other people.
The Aztecs used agave extensively; food, sugar, drinks (pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothes were obtained from it. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Subordinate cities paid an annual tribute in the form of luxury goods (such as feathers and ornate costumes).
After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants.
Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in Peaceful time... Despite the shock of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the Conquest have come down to us. For several dozen poetic texts, the names of the authors are even known, for example, Nezahualco-yotl and Kuakucin.
Cheat Sheet: Aztec Culture
Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator from the Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions of the Aztec thought, regardless of the "official" worldview.
In the basement of the Great Temple is the "House of the Eagles" where, in peacetime, Aztec military leaders could drink frothing chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry.
The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments. One of the most common themes of the poems is "Is life reality or a dream?" and the opportunity to meet with the Creator. The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form could hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and representations of gods.
Militancy of the Aztecs
None of the other nations aspired to military glory as the Aztecs. Death in battle or on a sacrificial stone was considered the most honorable. Warriors who died in battle, victims, as well as women who died during childbirth, could hope for the highest honor in the afterlife; almost all others, despite their social status, were forced to roam the underground for four years before reaching the lower level of the otherworldly kingdom, which the Aztecs called the Land of the Dead, or "our common home."
Religion was one of the reasons for the belligerence. Every night the struggle of the Sun with the Moon and the stars is repeated, and if Huitzilopochtli loses the battle, then life is doomed to perish in the dark. The powers of the deity must be restored every day and according to the ideas of the Aztecs, human blood, which they called "the most precious water", is perfectly suited for this.
Scientists are not unanimous in their estimate of how many people the Aztecs killed each year, but most likely around 20,000 were sacrificed throughout the empire.
In the world of warring states, a lot could be achieved exclusively by military skill, and the Aztecs understood this perfectly. Codes, Spanish reports and results archaeological site, in Mesoamerica, no advanced weapons of war did not appear. The outcome of the battle depended solely on the skill of individual warriors. In such conditions, the winner will be the one who achieves two goals - strengthening the military organization and raising the morale of the soldiers. The entire Aztec culture was built to maximize the achievement of these goals.
There is a special logic in the Aztecs' striving for military success. It is noteworthy that the Aztecs almost did not try to conquer the conquered peoples. They did not build fortresses and did not leave garrisons behind enemy lines.
Instead, they sought to intimidate other city-states in the region: only fear of retribution kept the tribute flowing. Any hint that the Aztecs were no longer invincible would provoke an immediate uprising, which the Spaniards took advantage of, helped by the locals who wanted to overthrow the oppressors.
However, the Aztec war machine was trouble-free and as sophisticated as the level of development of society allowed. All the energy of the state was aimed at increasing military power. From the age of 20, any healthy man could be drafted into a military campaign, which regularly began in the fall, after the harvest and the end of the summer rains. In addition, there were professional warriors from among the nobility and commoners who distinguished themselves on the battlefield. They did not perform any other duties, but were mainly supported by tribute from the conquered cities.
The battles were mostly chaotic and fierce hand-to-hand combat, where everyone was given many opportunities to excel. In heroism, they were more reminiscent of the battles of Homeric Greece than the European armed maneuvers of that time. Usually the battle began with archery and slingshot. Then the troops converged, lined up in a long line, firing darts from atlals. In the vanguard were seasoned veterans, who entered into hand-to-hand combat with the enemy.
The purpose of military action was to force the conquered peoples to recognize the domination of the Aztecs and pay tribute to them. By 1519, a similar fate befell about 370 cities, and the amount of tribute supplied to Tenochtitlan annually was enormous. The tribute included 7000 tons of grain, 4000 tons of beans, 2 million cotton cloaks along with a smaller number of military armor, shields and feather headdresses.
During the excavations of the Great Temple, many luxury items were discovered, most of which ended up in the Aztecs as tribute, since they are not found in the Valley of Mexico.
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The Aztec Empire, centered in the capital Tenochtitlan, dominated most of Mesoamerica in the 15th and 16th centuries AD. Through military conquest and expansion of trade, Aztec art also spread, helping the Aztecs achieve cultural and political hegemony over their subjects and provide for posterity a tangible account of the artistic imagination and talent of the artists of this last great civilization of Mesoamerica.
INFLUENCES
The usual streams run through the history of Mesoamerican art. The Olmec, Mayan, Toltec and Zapotec cultures, among others, perpetuated an artistic tradition that showed a love for monumental stone sculpture, imposing architecture, highly colored ceramics, geometric stamps for fabric and body art, and exciting metalwork that was used to represent people. animals, plants, gods and features of the religious ceremony, especially those rites and deities associated with fertility and agriculture.
Aztec artists were also influenced by their contemporaries from neighboring states, especially those from Oaxaca (many of whom resided permanently in Tenochtitlan) and the Huastec Gulf Coast region, where there was a strong tradition of three-dimensional sculpture. These diverse influences and the Aztecs' own eclectic tastes and admiration for ancient art made their art one of the most diverse of all ancient cultures anywhere. Sculptures of terrible gods with abstract images may come from the same workshop as naturalistic works depicting the beauty and grace of animal and human appearance.
FEATURES OF THE ART OF AZTEK
Metallurgy was a special skill of the Aztecs. The great Renaissance painter Albrecht Draurer saw some of the artifacts returned to Europe, which made him say: “… I have never seen in all my days what made my heart so happy as these things. For I saw amazing artistic objects among them, and I admired the subtle ingenuity of people in these distant lands. " Unfortunately, as with most other artifacts, these objects were melted down for currency and therefore very few examples survive thanks to the excellent metalworking skills of the Aztecs in gold and silver. Smaller items have been discovered, including gold labrettas (lip piercings), pendants, rings, earrings, and necklaces in gold, representing everything from eagles to tortoiseshell shells to gods, testifying to the skills of lost wax casting and the filigree work of the finest artisans or toltec.
Aztec sculpture was the best survivor, and its subject was very often people from the vast family of gods they worshiped. Carved out of stone and wood, these figures, sometimes monumental in size, were not idols containing the spirit of a god, since in the Aztec religion the spirit of a certain deity was believed to be inhabited in sacred sacred sacred temples and temples. However, it was considered necessary to “feed” these sculptures with blood and precious objects, so the stories from the Spanish conquistadors of huge statues, splattered with blood and inlaid with precious stones and gold. Other large sculptures, more in a circle, include the magnificent seated god Xochipilli and various chacmools, reclining figures with a hollow cut in a chest that was used as a vessel for heart sacrifices. They, like most other Aztec sculptures, were once painted using a wide range of vibrant colors.
A smaller sculpture has been found at sites throughout Central Mexico. They often take the form of local deities and especially those associated with agriculture. The most common are straight female figures of the corn deity, usually with an imposing headdress and the corn god Xipe Totec. Lacking the sophistication of imperial art, these sculptures and similar ceramic figures often represent the more benevolent side of the Aztec gods.
Miniature works were also popular when objects such as plants, insects, and shells were presented in precious materials such as carnelite, pearls, amethyst, rock crystal, obsidian, shell, and the most precious of all materials, jade. Other material that was highly regarded were exotic feathers, especially the green plumage of the quetzal bird. The feathers, cut into small pieces, were used to create mosaic paintings, as adornments for shields, costumes and fans, as well as in magnificent headdresses such as the one attributed to Motekuhome II, which is now in the Für-Völkerkund Museum in Vienna.
Turquoise was a particularly popular material with Aztec artists, and its use in mosaic form to cover sculptures and masks has created some of the most striking imagery from Mesoamerica. A typical example is the decorated human skull that represents the god Tezcatlipoca and which is now in the British Museum in London. Another great example is the Xiuhtecuhtli mask, the god of fire, sleepy pearlescent eyes and a lovely set of white shells. Finally, there is the magnificent double-headed serpentine cloak, also now in the British Museum. With carved cedar wood entirely covered in small squares of turquoise, and red mouths and white teeth made in the spondylus and shell, respectively, the piece was likely part of a ceremonial costume. The snake was a powerful depiction in Aztec art as a creature capable of shedding its skin, represented regeneration, and was also particularly associated with the god Quetzalcoatl.
Despite the lack of a potter's wheel, the Aztecs were also adept at pottery, as indicated by the large hollow figures and several beautifully carved covered urns that were excavated near the Mayor of Templo in Tenochtitlan, probably used as vessels for burial ash. Other examples of ceramic work include the Texcoco molded tripod-footed censer, erupted jugs, and elegant hourglass-shaped cups with hours. These vessels are generally thin-walled, well-distributed, have cream or red and black glide, and bear finely colored geometric patterns in earlier designs, and flora and fauna in later examples. The highest-value pottery of the Aztecs themselves, and the type that Motecuhsoma himself used, was the Cholula ultra-thin piece from Cholollan in the Puebla Valley. Vessels could also be made from molds or carved, and the clay was still tough. A perfect example of these anthropomorphic vessels is the famous vase representing the head of the rain god Tlaloc, painted in bright blue, with eye-eyed and fearsome red fangs, now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
Musical instruments were another important part of the Aztec artist's repertoire. These include ceramic flutes and wooden teponazlits and huelts, respectively, long and vertical ceremonial drums. They are richly carved, and one of the best is the Malinalco drum, which is covered with dancing jaguars and eagles that represent sacrificial victims, as indicated by the banners and speech scrolls of battle and fire symbols.
ART AS PROPAGANDA
The Aztecs, like their cultural predecessors, used art as a tool to strengthen their military and cultural dominance.
The imposition of buildings, murals, sculptures, and even manuscripts, especially at key locations like Tenochtitlan, not only represented and even reproduced key elements of the Aztec religion, but also reminded the subjects of wealth and power that permitted their construction and production.
The supreme example of this use of art as a conveyor of political and religious messages is the Mayor of Templo in Tenochtitlan, which was much more than an extremely impressive pyramid. It has been meticulously designed in every detail to present sacred mountain the serpent of the land of Coatepec, so important in Aztec religion and mythology. This mountain was the place where Coatlicue (earth) gave birth to her son Huitzilopochtli (sun), who defeated other gods (stars) led by his sister Koyolksauki (moon). The Huitzilopochtli Temple was built on top of the pyramid along with another in honor of the rain god Tlaloc. Further associations with myth are the serpentine sculptures lining the base and the large Koyolksauki stone carved in c. 1473 AD, also found at the base of the pyramid and depicting in relief the dismembered body of the fallen goddess. Stone, along with other sculptures such as Tisok Stone, linked this cosmic image to the modern defeat of local enemies. In the case of the Koyolhauhiki stone, the defeat of Tlatelolca is mentioned. Finally, the Mayor of Templo was himself a repository of art, for when his interior was explored, a vast appearance of sculptures and art objects buried with the remains of the dead was discovered, and in many cases these works work that the Aztecs themselves were collected from more ancient cultures than theirs. own.
Temples praising the Aztec worldview were also built in the conquered territories. The Aztecs usually left existing political and administrative structures in place, but they imposed their own gods in a hierarchy over local deities, and this was largely done through architecture and art, backed up by sacrificial rites in these new sacred sites, usually built on previous sacred sites. locations and often in spectacular environments such as mountain peaks.
Aztec imagery spreading throughout the empire includes much less well-known deities than Huitzilopochtli, and there are a surprising number of examples of nature and agricultural gods. Perhaps the most famous are the reliefs of the water goddess Chalchiuhtlicue on the Malinche hill near ancient Tula. These and other works of Aztec art were most often produced by local artists and may have been commissioned by authorities representing the state or by private colonists from the Aztec center. Architectural art, cave paintings of gods, animals and shields, and other art objects were found throughout the empire from Puebla to Veracruz and especially around cities, hills, springs and caves. In addition, these works are usually unique, which indicates the absence of any organized workshops.
Masterpieces
The large circular Tizoka stone (carved in 1485 AD from basalt) is a masterful mixture of cosmic mythology and real politics. It was originally used as a surface for human sacrifices, and since these sacrifices were usually defeated warriors, it is fitting that the reliefs around the edge of the stone depict the Aztec ruler Tizoka attacking warriors from Matlazzinki, an area conquered by Tizoko in the late 15th century CE. The defeated are also portrayed as chichimecs, that is, landless barbarians, while the victors wear the noble dress of the revered ancient Toltec. The upper surface of the stone with a diameter of 2.67 m depicts an eight-pointed solar disk. The Tizoca Stone is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
The massive basalt statue of the Coatlicue (carved during the last half century of the Aztec reign) is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Aztec sculpture. The goddess is represented in a terrifying form with two serpentine heads, clawed legs and arms, a necklace of dismembered hands and human hearts with a skull pendant, and a writhing serpent skirt. Possibly one in four and representing a revelation of female power and terror, the 3.5m tall statue leans forward slightly, so the overall dramatic effect of the play is so emotional that it is understandable why the statue was actually reburied several times after its initial excavation in 1790. year. The Coatlicue statue is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
The Sunstone, also known as the Calendar Stone (despite not functioning), must be the most recognizable art object created by any of the great civilizations of Mesoamerica. Discovered in the 18th century A.D. near the cathedral in Mexico City, the stone was carved c. 1427 A.D. E. And shows the solar disk, which represents the five successive worlds of the sun from Aztec mythology. The basalt stone, 3.78 m in diameter, almost a meter thick, was once part of the Templo Mayor complex in Tenochtitlan. In the center of the stone is an image of either the sun god Tonatiuch (Day of the Sun), or Johualtonatiuch (Night Sun), or the primordial earthly monster Tlaltehukhtli, in the latter case representing the final destruction of the world when the fifth sun fell to Earth. Around the central face at four points are four more suns, which successively replaced each other after the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca fought for control of the cosmos until they reached the epoch of the 5th Sun. On either side of the central face are two jaguar heads or paws, each holding a heart, representing the earthly realm. The two heads in the lower center represent fire serpents, and their bodies run around the perimeter of the stone, each ending in a tail. The four cardinal and intercardinal directions are also indicated by larger and smaller dots, respectively.
As one of the latest examples of the wealth of Aztec art that has survived the best destructive efforts of their conquerors, there is the eagle warrior from Tenochtitlan. This figure appears to be about to run, is in terracotta and was made in four separate pieces. This Knight Eagle wears a helmet representing a bird of prey, has wings and even clawed legs. Remnants of plaster suggest that the figure was once covered in real feathers for an even more lifelike effect. Initially, he would have stood with a partner, on either side of the doorway.
OUTPUT
After the fall of the Aztec empire, local art production declined.
Ancient Aztec culture in brief
However, some Aztec projects lived in the works of local artists hired by Augustinian monks to decorate their new churches in the 16th century AD. The production of manuscripts and pen continued, but only at the end of the 18th century AD. an interest in the art and history of Precolumbus would lead to a more systematic exploration of what lies beneath the foundations of modern Mexican cities. Gradually, an increasing number of Aztec artifacts revealed that there was ever any doubt, proof that the Aztecs were some of the most ambitious, creative and eclectic artists Mesoamerica has ever produced.
112. Myths of the Aztecs in religious and cultural traditions
Temples in honor of the gods. The legends and myths of the Aztecs were closely associated with the religious life of this people. The numerous gods of the Aztec pantheon were dedicated to magnificent temples that were raised to the tops of the pyramids. In the center of the Aztec capital was a giant truncated five-step pyramid. Its base area probably reached 1000 m 2. At the top of the pyramid, at a height of about 30 m, there were two temples. Ladders of 114 steps led to the sanctuaries, arranged in such a way that the rising procession on each ledge skirted the structure. According to Spanish reports, one of them contained a giant image of Huitzilopochtli, adorned with a chain of gold and silver hearts. Nearby was probably the Tezcatlipoca sanctuary. Huge statues deities were placed in front of altars, on which sacrificial gifts were laid.
During lavish celebrations held twice a year, a huge image of Huitzilopochtli was made from bread dough with honey. After performing religious rites, the participants of the holiday in a solemn atmosphere divided it into pieces and ate it.
Finds in Teotihuacan. In the place where the Sun and Moon were once born, the Indians, the predecessors of the Aztecs, erected pyramids and built magnificent temples. Archaeologists have unearthed the giant Pyramid of the Sun and its smaller copy, the Pyramid of the Moon. The height of the Pyramid of the Sun may have reached 71 meters. It was loaded with 765 thousand cubic meters of building material. Once upon a time there was a temple on its top, but today there is practically nothing left of it. The majestic structure amazed the imagination of the Aztecs. They considered him the creation of giants. Not far from the Pyramid of the Sun, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl was discovered. It was decorated with snake heads.
Human sacrifice
Sacrifices. If in the legend about the birth of the Sun and the Moon it was indicated that the gods sacrificed themselves for the sake of people, then from this the conclusion followed - people should sacrifice the most precious and valuable to the gods. To supply the gods with energy and thereby postpone the inevitable death of the human race, they must be given the blood of people to drink. Sacrifices, the Aztecs believed, were necessary to maintain life on earth: human blood nourished the sun, caused rains and ensured the earthly existence of man.
In some rituals, a chosen one was sacrificed, who had the honor to embody a deity. The Aztecs had a widespread custom - every year they elected a handsome young man who had no physical disabilities, who was considered the embodiment of Tezcatlipoca. He was treated like a deity, satisfying any of his desires, and after a year was solemnly sacrificed.
Bloody ritual. Often the victim was killed by the priests, ripping open the chest with a knife and ripping out the heart. Four priests, painted black, in black robes, grabbed the victim by the arms and legs and threw it on the sacrificial stone. The fifth priest, dressed in purple robes, ripped open her chest with a sharp obsidian dagger and pulled out her heart with his hand, which he then threw at the foot of the statue of the god. Almost every day a holiday of some god was celebrated, so human blood flowed continuously.
In some cases, the Aztecs limited themselves to bloodletting through the thorns of the magi plant.
The victims are on fire. No less wild and terrible was the cult of the fire god Huehueteotl.
The most important and significant achievements of the Aztecs
In honor of him, the priests kindled a huge bonfire in the temple and, having tied the prisoners of war, threw them into the fire and slowly burned them. Sometimes the Aztecs staged "gladiatorial battles": they tied a prisoner to a sacrificial stone and gave him a wooden weapon, with which he had to defend himself against the attacks of many well-armed soldiers.
On special occasions, women and children were sacrificed. Women who fell into a state of ecstasy after many hours of performing ritual dances turned into an offering to the goddess of the earth. The priests killed babies bought from beggar parents with knives during a drought, hoping that the rain god Tlaloc would have mercy and give the fields the necessary moisture.
The Aztec state constantly had to worry about providing sacrifices to the insatiable gods. During the solemn consecration of the temple of the god of war in Tenochtitlan, held in 1486, 20 thousand prisoners were killed, and at the coronation of one of the last rulers - Montezuma - 12 thousand soldiers died.
Myths in Art and Literature. Aztec mythology had a significant impact on the visual arts, literature, philosophy of this people. In honor of the gods, the Aztecs performed a variety of ritual dances, religious dramas, and composed poetic hymns. Here is a fragment of one of them, addressed to the goddess of corn and fertility, Chicomecoatl:
O venerable goddess of the seven ears! Arise, wake up! O our mother, you are leaving us today, You are leaving us orphans, You are leaving for your country Tlalocan!
Calendar stone
"Calendar stone". At the end of the 15th century. the main temple of the capital of the Aztecs was decorated with an amazing stone disc - "Calendar stone" ("Stone of the Sun"). It was a gray-black basalt disc with a diameter of 3.66 meters and weighing almost 24 tons. On it were depicted the signs of the five times (five Suns), which are told in the legends. In the middle of the stone was an image of the Fifth Sun. Concentric circles circled him. One of them contains the signs of the twenty days of the Aztec calendar. In the next circle were the signs "turquoise" and "jade", meaning the words "jewel" and "sky". Behind them were the symbols of the stars, which were crossed by the rays of the sun. Two large fiery snakes, symbolizing time, surrounded the stone.
When conquistadors invaded Mexico, the "Calendar Stone" was thrown from the top of the pyramid. The Europeans feared that, seeing him, the Indians would try to return to their former life. Therefore, the stone was buried in the ground. Accidentally amazing creation of the Aztecs was discovered in the XVIII century. Today, the "Calendar Stone" takes pride of place among the exhibits of the National Historical Museum in the capital of Mexico.
Aztecs and modern Mexico. The memory of the Aztecs and their legendary wanderings was preserved even after their beautiful capital was destroyed by the conquistadors, and in its place arose modern city Mexico City. One of the most beautiful squares in the city is called "Square of Three Cultures". One part of it has been turned into a museum, where you can see the Aztec buildings found by archaeologists.
The image of an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its beak can be seen today on the state emblem of the Mexican Republic. The highest order of this country is called the "Aztec Eagle" ("Aguila Azteca").
How the Aztecs lived and where the Aztecs lived, you will learn from this article.
When did the Aztecs appear?
Aztecs are the Indian people who inhabited the territory of modern Mexico from the Atlantic to Pacific oceans... They erected a truly magical civilization and left behind outstanding monuments of culture and architecture, truly great discoveries of doctors and scientists.
The Aztecs in 1068, for some unknown reason, left their ancestral home, the legendary Astlan (the place of herons). Scientists believe that the island was located in the northern part of the Gulf of California. It was from the name of the ancestral home that the naming of the tribe went - the Aztecs. Although they themselves called themselves "Meshiks". The Aztecs came to the Mexican Valley in the 13th century, and a century later a mighty state was created here with its center in the city of Tenochtitlan (the modern territory of Mexico City).
The Aztecs, being intelligent and aggressive, quickly conquered the neighboring Indian tribes. Their empire grew and grew rich. The peoples enslaved by them paid a huge tribute in gold, cotton, and slaves. In the 16th century, the Aztec state fell into ruin, as a stronger conqueror came to America - the Spaniards, who defeated their army and destroyed the capital of the once mighty empire.
What did the Aztecs do?
Only in the twentieth century, scientists managed to find out what the Aztecs were doing in everyday life. From the records of the conquistadors, the ancient records of the tribe, it became clear that the lands in the valley of Mexico, where the Aztecs lived, were quite fertile. They cultivated beans, corn, tomatoes and other vegetables. Many fruit trees grew in the forests of Central America, so gathering was common among the tribe.
In the harsh lands of Mexico City, spacious pastures are located. Thanks to this, the Aztecs were engaged in cattle breeding. They domesticated dogs and turkeys for food. In addition to farming and cattle breeding, the tribe went hunting and fishing. It is worth noting that those Aztecs who lived on the periphery were engaged in this.
In large cities, the Aztecs were engaged in fundamentally different matters. Their civilization was the most powerful and advanced in America. They erected huge temples, developed art and literature. The ancient people managed to create a large corpus, writing everything on the bark of trees in pictographic writing. Also, the Aztecs merged by skillful merchants and made trade expeditions far beyond the borders of their empire. The cities developed pottery, jewelry and weapons, weaving.
V period from 1068 to 1168 (presumably still in 1168) the Chichimek tribe left their legendary ancestral home - the island of Astlan ("the place where herons live", "the place of herons"). The exact location of the island is unknown, some researchers believe that it was located somewhere in the northern part of the Gulf of California, however, according to modern concepts, the ancestors of the Aztecs lived somewhere relatively close to the valley of Mexico City (Anahuac). From the word "Astlan" came the name "Aztecs" (they called themselves "Meshiki" or "Tenochki").
B For more than 200 years, according to legends, the Aztec tribe wandered in search of their new homeland (modern scientists believe that the travel time was much less), before they settled on two islands of Lake Texcoco. Mythological and historical sources indicate that the Aztecs first reached the mythical starting point of Chicomostok ("Seven Caves") (Chicomostok served as a "staging" point for many other wandering tribes, for example, Tlashkalans, Tepanecs, Chalco), and only then went to long journey south to the more fertile lands of the Mexico City Valley.
NS Before getting to the Valley of Mexico, they stopped many times: they erected temples, resolved intra-tribal conflicts. They erected their first sanctuary on the hill Chapultepec ("grasshopper hill"), which belonged to the city-state of Askapotsalco, where they lived from 1253 to 1295. They celebrated their first holiday of the Birth of the New Fire in Coatepec, the second in Apatzco (in the Valley of Mexico City), the third in Tespayocan (on the shores of Lake Texcoco), and the fourth in Chapultepec (Lake Xochimilco).
M Many of the tribes living around the lake greeted them very unfriendly (they called them "people without a face") and fought them. Already in the valley of Mexico City, the Aztecs were attacked by a coalition of coastal cities, captured and exiled as slaves to Culuacan (Culua - "the place of those who have ancestors") - there they became mercenary warriors, later with their bravery they earned honor and respect. But in 1322 Culuacan drove them out of their lands, and the Aztecs moved deep into the lake to the swampy islets. According to another version, they gain independence and leave this area - Tisapan ("near the chalk water").
V In 1325, on a small island of Lake Texcoco, the Aztecs saw in reality an ancient prophecy that appeared to the leader Tenoch, in which the chief god of the Aztecs Huitzilopochtli predicted that they would settle where they would see an eagle holding a snake in its claws and sitting on a cactus. In the same year, the capital of the future Aztec empire, Tenochtitlan, was founded, named after the legendary leader Tenoch (hence the other name of the Aztecs - "tenochki"). There is another translation of the city's name - "a place where a cactus grows on a stone." Later, 4 quarters were formed in the city: Teopan, Moyotlan, Quepopan and Astakalko; and in the middle of the city there is a gigantic ritual center.
WITH 1325 to 1430 the Aztecs are in the service (mainly as military mercenaries) at the most powerful city-state of that period in the valley of Mexico - Askapozalco. They received land and access to natural resources as rewards for service. During this period, they rebuilt their city with great zeal, expanding it with the help of artificial islands - chinampas, and also tried to conclude alliances (most often through marriages - the first such marriage was with a woman from Kuluakan) with the ruling dynasties of neighboring peoples, dating back to their roots to the Toltecs.
V 1337 north of Tenochtitlan, a group of Aztecs, separated from the main tribe, founded the city of Tlatelolco.
V In 1348, there is a war with the Tepanecs, in which many manuscripts from the royal archives of Texcoco are destroyed.
V In 1359, Cholula was captured by the Ueshokingo kingdom.
V In 1375, the ruler Askapotsalco allowed the Aztecs to formally choose their ruler, and between 1375 and 1376 the Aztecs elect their first supreme leader, who became Acamapichtli (1376-1395). During his reign, he quite strongly strengthened the political position of the Aztecs, both external and internal.
V Perhaps in 1390 the Great Temple was laid, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, but it is likely that it could have been built earlier.
V 1395 Acamapichtli dies (after his death a period of turmoil ensues) and Huitsilihuitl (1395-1405 / 14) comes to replace him.
V 1405/14 (according to some sources in 1405, according to others - in 1414), Chimalpopoca (1405 / 14-1428), brother of Huizilihuitl, becomes the third emperor of the Aztecs. He established a complex system of dynastic inheritance. Tlatoani (supreme ruler) was elected by four generals, appointed Supreme Council... They could choose him among the brothers of the deceased Tlatoani, and if they were not there, then among the sons and nephews in the male line.
TO 1418 Askapozalco's Tepanecs conquer the entire Texcoco area.
V Itzcoatl came to power in 1428 (1428-1440).
Emperor Itzcoatl and his nephew (or brother) Tlacaelel (advisor to the emperor) officially legalized the practice of sacrifices for the first time. Identifying the main god of the Aztecs Huitzilopochtli with the sun, they obliged to periodically feed the heavenly body with fresh human blood so that it would not stop its path of movement across the sky.
V In the same year, Askapotzalco opposed Tenochtitlan, but the Aztecs formed an alliance with Tlatelolco, Tlacopan, Texcoco, Tlaxcala, Huescalingo and finally defeated the Tepanecs of Askapotzalco in 1430. Itzcoatl forms a powerful triple alliance Tenochtitlan-Texcoco-Tlacopan (Mexica, Acolua and Tepaneci) with a supreme council, in which questions foreign policy the Aztecs decided, trade issues were solved by Tepanecs, and legal issues were solved by Acolua. War booty in such an alliance was divided in a ratio of 2: 2: 1. And Tlakaelel began to lead the army of the tripartite alliance, tk. proved himself in the war with the Tepanecs as an outstanding commander.
AND Zcoatl conquered the agricultural south and north of the Mexico City Valley. Under him, a land fund appeared. The Council of Elders, War Chiefs, and Priests was replaced by the Council of Four, the highest deliberative body under the Tlatoani, composed of his relatives and entitled to elect a new Tlatoani. Itzcoatl also destroyed old pictographic manuscripts in which the Aztecs and their deities were assigned a modest role in the history of the Mexico City Valley. Instead, new manuscripts were written, in which they exalted the importance of the Aztecs and were silent about the primitive tribal past.
V In 1440, Montezuma I (1440-1469) comes to power. During his reign, sacrifices in the form of fights between captive opponents began to enjoy popularity. If during such fights the captives showed courage and showed stubborn resistance, then the priests gave valuable gifts to the captive Aztec. This form of sacrifice also had a political subtext - Montezuma I began to often invite to such battles the leaders of the tribes not yet conquered by the Aztecs. Further, in order to psychologically influence the guests, a mass execution was arranged.
Also between the Triple Alliance and other city-states - Tlashkala, Ueshozingo, Cholula - by mutual agreement "wars of flowers" were waged, the main purpose of which was to get captives for sacrifice to the Sun.
AND the empire of the Aztecs grew with new lands and needed administrative reforms. A special management procedure was introduced, new norms for moving up the social ladder. Montezuma I laid the foundations judicial system different from community and tribal law. The Tlatoani still retained their deified status and, since the time of Itzcoatl, the process of concentration of military, political, religious-ideological, legislative and judicial power in the hands of the ruler continued.
V In the middle of the 15th century, the Aztecs continued to develop their capital and built a huge dam across the lake, which allowed them to save fresh water for the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and protected the city from floods. The first aqueduct in the city was built.
V In 1445, the Aztecs undertook a military campaign against Oaxaca.
V In 1446 they are fighting against the Chalco-Amekamekan confederation.
WITH 1450 to 1454 a natural disaster struck the Aztecs: there were prolonged droughts and untimely frosts. The result was hunger, disease - many residents died. Numerous cases of cannibalism have been reported.
1458 year - the conquest of Veracruz and Coistlahuaca.
V In 1465, the Aztecs defeat the Chalcs and conquer them.
1467 year - Ashayakatl, the grandson of Montezuma I, has a son - the future ruler of Tenochtitlan Montezuma II Shokoyotzin.
V In 1469, Ashayakatl (1469-1481) came to power and in 1473 he conquered Tlatelolco after the ruler of this city, Mokiustli, declares his independence.
V 1470-1480s The Aztecs gain a number of military victories and expand the western borders of the empire: including the conquest of the Toluca Valley in 1476.
V In 1481, the grandson of Montezuma I Tisok Calchiutlatonac ("Perforated with emeralds") (1481-1486) became the emperor of the Aztecs - during his reign the empire flourished. 2 years after the beginning of his reign, he decides to rebuild the teocalli dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (Great Temple). They decide to make the temple much higher, majestic and more powerful - this required a lot of human resources: during the construction, not only the adult population of the city and slaves, but also children worked.
V In 1486, Tisok was poisoned (this is an assumption) and the third grandson of Montezuma I Auizotl (1486-1502) becomes emperor. He managed to become famous as an outstanding military leader. The next year (February 19, 1487) the construction of the Great Temple is completed. In honor of the opening of the temple, the Aztecs invited the leaders of the tribes that were part of the empire, who brought many subjects with them for sacrifices. All the temples in Tenochtitlan at that time (about 300) were also festively decorated. The emperor himself was the first to rip out the victim's heart and handed it over to the priest. At the same moment, a mass sacrifice began in all the temples of the city, which lasted from morning to late evening. The holiday lasted 3 days. According to various estimates, from 4,000 to 80,600 people were sacrificed (but the figure of 20,000 prisoners seems more truthful).
During his reign, Auizotl was forced to build irrigation and drainage structures, due to the periodic lack of food and fresh water in Tenochtitlan (the city's population grew rapidly). So, the second aqueduct was built in the city.
1496
year - the borders of the Aztec empire are located near the borders of the Mixtec state (Oaxaca Valley). Auizotl cannot ignore the territory of the Mixtec state - the military expansion of the Aztecs begins, which turns into a protracted one.
A solar eclipse occurs, frightening all the inhabitants of the empire.
Dies in the same year great commander Empire Tlacaelel - he was 98 years old.
TO At the beginning of the 16th century, the city-states, conquered by the triple alliance in the early era of the union, were deeply integrated into the imperial structure - the rulers of such cities participated in the wars of conquest of the Aztecs, received for this awards in the form of titles and lands. The triple alliance included about 50 city-states and more than 400 villages were subordinate. There were 38 provinces from which tribute was collected.
V In 1502, Montezuma Shokoyotzin ("young") (Montezuma II - 1502-1520), the son of Ashayakatl, came to power. During his reign, the empire was mainly engaged not so much in the seizure of new lands, but in the consolidation of the previously captured and suppression of uprisings and revolts. Montezuma II, like his predecessors, failed to conquer the Tarascans in the west, and the Tlaxcalanians in the east (the latter provided military assistance to the Spanish conquistadors, speaking with them against the hated Aztecs).
M Ontesuma II left a memory of himself as an unsurpassed diplomat. He continued the policy of military expansion, but his policy was different from that of his predecessors. Lightning attacks were replaced by successive measures to actively involve various peoples in the economic life of the country. During his reign, numerous enclaves were incorporated into the country, as a result, the territory of the Triple Alliance encompassed all of central Mexico, including the states of Veracruz, Hidalgo, Puebla, Mexico City, Morelos and partially Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas. A special temple was built in Tenochtitlan, where the statues of all the gods of the conquered tribes were located.
V During this period, the practice of mass sacrifices continues - there is a known case when Montezuma II ordered the sacrifice of over 1000 prisoners in one day.
V In 1503, the Aztecs begin anew their long and bloody military action against Oaxaca. Montezuma II attacks the Mixtec cities of Achiotlan and Haltepec. Heavy rains flood the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.
V In 1504, the Aztecs are fighting against the Puebla Enclave.
WITH 1505 to 1509 The Aztecs begin military campaigns against the cities of Quetzaltepec, Tototepec, Teuktepec, Miahuatlan, Yanuetlan and Zozallan.
V 1509 the Aztecs are watching the comet with horror.
V 1511-1512 the Aztecs are defeated in the war against Oaxaca.
V 1512 3 strong tremors occur in the mountains around the Mexican Valley.
V In 1514, natural disasters occur in the form of droughts and severe cold weather - the harvest dies, famine begins.
V 1515 Ishtlilxochitl rebelled. The war between Texcoco and Tlaxcala began.
Rumors spread throughout the empire of the appearance of bearded white men.
V In 1518, Juan de Grijalva made an expedition to the Yucatan Peninsula on four well-equipped ships, and then, upon returning to Cuba, sailed along the coast of the Aztec empire.
1519
year - the capital of the Totonacs, Sempoala, was conquered by the Aztecs.
The year when the empire was already in the power of a huge territory with a variety of rich natural resources from the northern regions of present-day Mexico to the borders of Guatemala: the arid regions of the northern valley of Mexico City, the mountain gorges of the current states of Oaxaca and Guerrero, the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific mountain ranges.
TO this time, Tenochtitlan of the Aztecs turned into one of the largest cities world with a population of 150-200 thousand people and became a huge shopping center with a large market in the satellite town of Tlatelolco, where up to 25 thousand people gathered on a trading day. The second largest city in the empire was Texcoco with a population of 30 thousand people. Many other cities were home to 10-25 thousand people.
V In 1519, the expedition of Hernando Cortez began. He sailed from Cuba on 18 February with 11 ships carrying 508 soldiers, 16 horses and several cannons. First, he sailed with 10 ships to about. Cozumel. Then he rounded the Yucatan Peninsula and sailed to the Mexican coast, where he founded the city of Veracruz.
After the arrival of the Spaniards, a report was brought to the Aztec emperor: "The gods have returned. Their spears spew flame. Their warriors have two heads and six legs, and they live in floating houses." Montezuma awaited the fulfillment of the ancient prophecy of the return of Quetzalcoatl in the year of Se Acatl (the year of the cane rod), which corresponded to 1519. Ten years before this event, there were 8 omens of an impending disaster in the Aztec empire:
- Every night throughout the year, a flame appeared in the eastern part of the sky.
- For an unexplained reason, the Temple of Huitzilopochtli in Tlacateccan burned down.
- Lightning struck the Shiutekutli temple in Tsonmolko.
- One afternoon, a comet appeared, falling apart in three parts.
- The water in Lake Texcoco seethed and destroyed the surrounding houses.
- One night the voice of a crying woman was heard: "My dear children, we must go! Where can I take you?" (Florentine Codex).
- One fisherman caught a heron, with a tuft in the form of a mirror, in which Montezuma saw the heavens and an army galloping on animals like deer.
- Were found people with two heads and one body, which mysteriously then disappeared.
During his stay on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, Cortez often clashed with local tribes, but the power of the Indians' weapons was incomparable with the European - gunpowder did its job. Meanwhile, Montezuma received reports saying that white people shoot lightning and are dressed in armor made of silver and stone, and they cannot be defeated in open battle. In order to somehow appease the "gods" Montezuma sends Cortes various gifts, among which there were 20 female slaves. Cortes selects a woman from among his slaves named Malinche (in Indian her name meant "failure and strife"), who later becomes his translator (quickly learning Spanish) and his mistress. The Spaniards immediately christened her Marina, and the Indians called her La Malinche, which means "traitor". With her help, Cortés learned that the Aztec empire was a colossus with feet of clay, that many tribes would join him if he led them against the hated Aztecs, and that Emperor Montezuma lived behind the mountains in the large, beautiful and very rich city of Tenochtitlan. But if the tribes were ready to go against Tenochtitlan, then the Spaniards were not. Constant skirmishes did their job - bread, bacon and salt were running out; the warriors were tired of wearing heavy armor and many were afraid to freeze in the mountains, as well as the huge Aztec army. However, Cortez was not going to return empty-handed and the thirst for easy and quick profit, as well as the oratory skills of the leader of the Spaniards, convinced everyone to march on Tenochtitlan.
16 August 1519, the Spaniards began their march to the capital of the Aztec Empire, which lay about 450 kilometers to the west. Several thousand Indians joined them along the way.
8 November 1519 the Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, and Montezuma greeted them: "Welcome, we have been waiting for you. This is your home." He was waiting for God, Quetzalcoatl. But the gods did not come ... In the following weeks, the Aztec emperor discovered that he had actually become a hostage, and the Spaniards began to destroy all the shrines of the Indians and put Christian altars in their place. Then the Indians became more and more convinced that the Spaniards posing as gods were in fact no less bloodthirsty and greedy for gold people. Dissatisfaction with the actions of Montezuma, who continued to support the white aliens, grew. Once he was taken to the roof so that he would calm down the raging crowd, but they threw stones at him, from which he died three days later (according to the Spaniards, but there are other versions, which say that the Spaniards themselves killed the emperor before fleeing from the city ). After Montezuma, his brother Kuitlaulak (1520-1520) became emperor for a short time. Soon, under the onslaught of a huge number of outrageous crowds of the Aztecs, Cortez and his army were forced to leave the city. In the same year, the last supreme ruler-Tlatoani of the Aztec empire was Kuautemok of Tlatelolco ("Descending (falling) eagle" - 1520-1521). He turned 18 that year.
WITH Cortez, who fled from the city, did not intend to surrender. Having built the ships, he placed all his people on them and, hoping for luck, gunpowder, horses and iron, led his army to storm Tenochtitlan.
13 August 1521, the Spaniards captured Tenochtitlan, along with the last Tlatoani Cuautemoc and a number of his high advisers. Subsequently, Tenochtitlan was completely plundered and destroyed, Cuautemoc was executed (in 1525), and the Aztec empire was completely conquered by the Spaniards.
Aztec rulers:
- Akamapichtli (1376-1395)
- Huizilihuitl (1395-1405 / 14)
- Chimalpopoca (1405 / 14-1428)
- Itzcoatl (1428-1440)
- Montezuma the First (1440-1469)
- Ashayakatl (1469-1481)
- Vice (1481-1486)
- Auisotl (1486-1502)
- Montezuma II (1502-1520)
- Cuitlahuac (1520-1520)
- Cuautemok (1520-1521)
The Aztecs are the dominant culture during the postclassic period. They densely populated the Mexico City basin, and began to control vast areas of Central America northward to the Tehuantepec Strait.
Towards fate
Aztecs had every reason to be proud of themselves. In less than 200 years, they have gone from a nomadic tribe to the formidable rulers of the Valley of Mexico City and the surrounding regions. They attributed this success to their patron god, Huitzilopochtli, and invented a myth glorifying the years of their wanderings in the wilderness. They loved to tell this story and they repeated it constantly with unflagging pleasure and pride. Artists recreated it in books, now called codes; the narrative was conveyed in a series of pictures and glyphs. As pictured in extant codes The Aztec road to glory began in the dry, cactus-covered land northwest of the Mexico City Valley, in a place called Chicomozoc, or "Seven Caves," in the Kolhuatepec Hill Cave (see picture on the left). This place was legendary: other tribes, like the Toltecs before them, claimed that they came from the same place. Why the Aztecs had to leave this area is unknown. Perhaps they were pushed back by stronger tribes, although they preferred to believe that Huitzilopochtli ordered them to set off. As the Aztecs slowly moved southward, the legend became reality. By the time they reached the place where they were to establish their capital, which was foreshadowed by the eagle perched on a cactus, each episode can be dated with sufficient accuracy.
Though there were thousands of Aztec codes, none of them survived the Spanish invasion. Most were destroyed by the Spaniards, who were zealous for planting a new faith and eradicating pagan ideas. However, even then, the tradition of writing codes persisted among some
groups of Indians, which was greatly facilitated by some enlightened Spaniards. The masters left behind delightful pages that allow you to understand and feel how the Aztecs themselves imagined their own history.
The beginning of the empire of Tenochtitlan
Having settled in Chapultepec, the Aztecs became subjects of the Kolhuacans and served them as mercenaries. Over time, they began to feel weary about their subordinate position and incurred the wrath of the Kolhua leaders. Forced to flee, the Aztecs found themselves in the swampy lands of Lake Tezcoco. Here they founded their city Tenochtitlan, because they saw the sign predicted by Huitzilopochtli - a rock, where the cactus grew on which the eagle sat... Hence the name of the city - "the place where the cactus grows", and its emblem. (The same image can be seen on the flag of modern Mexico, only now the eagle is holding a snake in its beak.)
This eagle perched on a cactus is also featured on the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza (see image below). The book, on 16 beautifully illustrated pages, reproduces the history of the Aztecs from 1325 to the arrival of the Spanish year after year. Probably, this code was commissioned by the first VIP-king of New Spain, Don Antonio de Mendoza, after whom he was named. The Codex covers the reign of all rulers, from the legendary founder of the city, the priest of Tenoch to Motskusoma II. Every event, every victorious conquest of neighboring peoples is captured in detail. Especially for Spanish readers, the images are accompanied by inscriptions in Spanish.
Along the edges of the frontispiece is a strip of glyphs representing the years of the Aztec calendar. The 4 characters shown on the right are the basis of the calendar system, they are repeated every 4 years. Points I through 13 represent specific years. After 52 years, the cycle is repeated. The second year of Kamysh was always considered the beginning of the cycle. It was celebrated with the ceremony of extinguishing old ritual fires and lighting new ones, indicated by a special device for making fire, which can be seen on the frontispiece of the Mendoza Codex (3rd sign, bottom left).
Front painting of the Codex of Mendoza (Codes of the Aztecs)
The frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza symbolizes the growth of Tenochtitlan's power. The Founding Fathers pay homage to the city's symbol that sits atop the Aztec shield. The intersecting blue lines represent the canals that divide the city into 4 quarters. The two burning temples below denote victories over two rival cities, Kolhuacan and Tenayuca, won back when the Aztecs served as Tepanec mercenaries.
On the page to the left briefly tells about the life and reign of the first of the Aztec hereditary rulers, who came to power in 1376 and ruled for 21 years, which follows from the calendar glyphs in the fields. His name was Akamapichtli - "The hand holding the reed arrows" judging by the glyph above his head. During his reign, he conquered 4 cities, symbolically designated by the heads of the leaders. The last town of Xochimilco - "Flowers in arable land" paid a generous tribute.
On the page to the right depicts the third ruler of Tenochtitlan, Chimalpopoca, or "The Smoking Shield," whose reign was tarnished by the shame of defeat. During the attack on a place called Chalco, the locals sank 4 Aztec battle canoes and killed many Aztec warriors, as shown by the images of 5 severed heads. Chimalpopoca, executed by the Tepanecs, is shown first alive, and then with a body leaning forward and a silenced voice. His death sparked an uprising of the Aztecs against their masters.
On the page to the left depicting the reign of Motekusoma II, who won a number of glorious victories, as should be the case for a man with his name - "Wrathful Lord". His victories ensured a large influx of not only tributes, but also captives sacrificed on the altars of Tenochtipian. Three unpainted calendar glyphs mark the inglorious end of his reign - the arrival of the Spaniards, the death of the ruler, the founding of New Spain on the ruins of the Aztec empire.
Traditional vestments of the Aztec Warriors
According to the number of captured enemies, the warriors of the Aztecs, depicted above, could dress in increasingly magnificent robes. Before the battle, the soldiers changed their "ceremonial" suits for more suitable for the battle, keeping insignia and headdresses indicating their status.
To satisfy appetite of bloodthirsty gods, a constant influx of prisoners captured on the battlefield was needed. The warriors who delivered the prisoners were awarded special insignia, such as the capes and headdresses shown above. They indicated not only the valor of the warrior, but also his rank, directly determined by the number of captured prisoners. When a young warrior brought his first victim with him, the ruler rewarded him with a cloak with the image of a scorpion or flowers. The soldier who brought the second prisoner received a cape with a red border. If this happened the third time, then he was awarded an ornate cloak, called eekailakatskatl- "a gem twisted by the wind". If the Aztec warrior had 4 prisoners, then he joined the ranks of veterans and could wear a special hairstyle. He was also awarded with special insignia and vestments. When a warrior became a tekuiua - an honorary veteran, he could join the ranks of one of the military associations of the Eagle or Jaguar and wear a special uniform. Over time, he could rise to the rank of commander or adviser to the ruler. There was a lot of risk associated with promotion - bright insignia made him an excellent target on the battlefield.
