It is difficult for today's youth, and even for mature citizens, to understand what delight these, then fantastic, flying machines evoked. Silvery droplets, rapidly dissecting the blue sky behind them, excited the imagination of young people of the early fifties. The wide one left no doubt about the type of engine. Today, only computer games like War Thunder, with their offer to purchase a jet aircraft of the USSR, give some idea of this stage in the development of Russian aviation. But everything began even earlier.
What does "reactive" mean?
A reasonable question arises about the name of the type of aircraft. In English, it sounds short: Jet. The Russian definition hints at the presence of some kind of reaction. It is clear that we are not talking about fuel oxidation - it is also present in conventional carbureted aircraft, the same as in a rocket. The reaction of a physical body to the force of the ejected gas jet is expressed in giving it an oppositely directed acceleration. Everything else is just subtleties, which include various technical parameters of the system, such as aerodynamic properties, layout, wing profile, engine type. Here the options are possible, which engineering bureaus have come to in the process of work, often finding similar technical solutions, independently of each other.
It is difficult to separate rocket research from aviation research in this aspect. In the field of gunpowder boosters, installed to reduce the length of the takeoff and afterburner, work was carried out even before the war. Moreover, an attempt to install a compressor engine (unsuccessful) on a Coanda airplane in 1910 allowed the inventor Henri Coanda to claim Romanian priority. True, this design was initially inoperable, which was confirmed by the very first test, during which the aircraft burned out.
First steps
The first jet aircraft capable of staying in the air for a long time appeared later. The Germans became pioneers, although scientists from other countries - the United States, Italy, Britain and then technically backward Japan - achieved certain successes. These samples were, in fact, gliders of conventional fighters and bombers, on which engines of a new type were installed, devoid of propellers, which caused surprise and disbelief. In the USSR, engineers also dealt with this problem, but not so actively, focusing on proven and reliable screw technology. Nevertheless, the jet model of the Bi-1 aircraft, equipped with a turbojet engine designed by A. M. Lyulka, was tested immediately before the war. The machine was very unreliable, the nitric acid used as an oxidizing agent was eating up the fuel tanks, there were other problems, but the first steps are always difficult.
Hitler's "Sturmvogel"
Due to the peculiarities of the psyche of the Fuhrer, who hoped to crush the "enemies of the Reich" (to which he ranked the countries of almost the entire rest of the world), in Germany, after the outbreak of World War II, work began to create different types"Miracle weapons", including jet aircraft. Not all areas of this activity have been unsuccessful. Successful projects include the Messerschmitt-262 (aka Sturmfogel), the world's first serially produced jet aircraft. The device was equipped with two turbojet engines, had a radar in the bow, developed a speed close to sound (more than 900 km / h), and proved to be a fairly effective means of dealing with high-altitude B-17 ("Flying Fortresses") of the allies. Adolf Hitler's fanatical belief in the extraordinary capabilities of the new technology, however, paradoxically played a nasty role in the combat biography of the Me-262. Designed as a fighter, it was converted into a bomber by orders from “above”, and in this modification did not fully manifest itself.
"Arado"
The principle of the jet plane was applied in mid-1944 to the design of the Arado-234 bomber (again by the Germans). He managed to demonstrate his extraordinary combat capabilities by attacking the positions of the allies who landed in the area of the port of Cherbourg. A speed of 740 km / h and a ten-kilometer ceiling did not give anti-aircraft artillery a chance to hit this target, and American and British fighters simply could not catch up with it. In addition to bombing (very inaccurate for obvious reasons), "Arado" made aerial photography. The second experience of using it as a strike tool took place over Liege. The Germans did not suffer losses, and if fascist Germany had more resources, and the industry could produce more than 36 Ar-234s, then the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition would have had a hard time.
"U-287"
German developments fell into the hands of friendly states during the Second World War after the defeat of Nazism. Western countries already in the course of the final stage of hostilities, they began to prepare for the upcoming confrontation with the USSR. The Stalinist leadership took countermeasures. It was clear to both sides that the next war, if it took place, would be fought by jet planes. At that time, the USSR did not yet have a nuclear strike potential, there was only work on the creation of a production technology atomic bomb... But the Americans were very interested in the captured Junkers-287, which had unique flight data (combat load 4000 kg, range 1500 km, ceiling 5000 m, speed 860 km / h). Four engines, negative sweep (the prototype of future "invisibles") made it possible to use the aircraft as an atomic carrier.
The first post-war
Jet aircraft did not play a decisive role during World War II, so the bulk of Soviet production facilities focused on improving designs and increasing the production of conventional propeller driven fighters, attack aircraft and bombers. The issue of a promising carrier of atomic charges was difficult, and it was resolved promptly by copying the American Boeing B-29 (Tu-4), but the main goal was to counter possible aggression. For this, first of all, fighters were required - high-altitude, maneuverable and, of course, high-speed ones. How the new direction developed can be judged from the letter of the designer A.S. Yakovlev to the Central Committee (autumn 1945), who found a certain understanding. The party leadership considered it insufficient to simply study captured German equipment. The country needed modern Soviet jet aircraft, not inferior, but superior to the world level. At the 1946 parade in honor of the anniversary of the October Revolution (Tushino), they had to be shown to the people and foreign guests.
Provisional Yaks and MiGs
There was something to show, but it did not work out: the weather failed, there was a fog. The demonstration of new aircraft was moved to May Day. The first Soviet jet aircraft, produced in a series of 15 copies, were developed by the Mikoyan and Gurevich Design Bureau (MiG-9) and Yakovlev (Yak-15). Both samples were distinguished by a reduced scheme, in which the tail section was washed from below by jet jets emitted by nozzles. Naturally, to protect against overheating, these sections of the cladding were covered with a special layer made of refractory metal. Both aircraft differed in weight, number of engines and purpose, but on the whole they corresponded to the state of the Soviet aircraft-building school of the late forties. Their main purpose was the transition to a new type of power plant, but in addition to this, other important tasks were carried out: training of flight personnel and development of technological issues. These jet aircraft, despite the large volumes of their production (hundreds of pieces), were considered as temporary and subject to replacement in the very near future, immediately after the appearance of more advanced designs. And soon this moment came.
Fifteenth
This plane has become a legend. It was built in series unprecedented for peacetime, both in combat and in a paired training version. Many revolutionary technical solutions were used in the design of the MiG-15, for the first time an attempt was made to create a reliable pilot rescue system (catapult), it was equipped with powerful cannon armament. The speed of the jet, small but very efficient, allowed it to defeat armadas of strategic heavy bombers in the skies of Korea, where war broke out shortly after the arrival of a new interceptor. The American Saber, built according to a similar scheme, became a kind of analogue of the MiG. In the course of hostilities, equipment fell into the hands of the enemy. The Soviet plane was hijacked by a North Korean pilot, tempted by a huge monetary reward. The knocked down "American" was pulled out of the water and brought to the USSR. There was a mutual "exchange of experience" with the adoption of the most successful design solutions.
Passenger jet
The speed of a jet is its main advantage, and it applies not only to bombers and fighters. Already in the late forties, the British-built Kometa liner entered international airlines. It was created specifically for the transportation of people, was comfortable and fast, but, unfortunately, it was not very reliable: seven accidents happened in two years. But progress in the field of high-speed passenger transportation could no longer be stopped. In the mid-fifties, the legendary Tu-104 appeared in the USSR, a conversion version of the Tu-16 bomber. Despite numerous accidents involving new aircraft, jet aircraft increasingly took over the airlines. Gradually, the appearance of a promising liner and an idea of what it should be was formed. movers) were used by designers less and less.
Generations of fighters: first, second ...
Like almost any technique, jet interceptors are classified by generation. There are currently five of them, and they differ not only in the years of production of models, but also in design features. If the concept of the first samples basically had a developed base of achievements in the field of classical aerodynamics (in other words, only the type of engine was their main difference), then the second generation had more significant features (swept wing, completely different shape of the fuselage, etc.) In the fifties there was an opinion that air combat would never be maneuverable, but time has shown that this opinion is wrong.
... and from the third to the fifth
Sixties dog dumps between Skyhawks, Phantoms and MiGs in the skies over Vietnam and the Middle East showed the move further development, marking the arrival of the second generation of jet interceptors. Variable wing geometry, repetitive sound and missile armament combined with powerful avionics became the hallmarks of the third generation. Currently, the basis of the Air Force fleet of the most technically advanced countries is made up of fourth-generation aircraft, which have become the product of further development. Even more advanced models are already entering service, combining high speed, super-maneuverability, low visibility and electronic warfare. This is the fifth generation.
By-pass engines
Outwardly, even today, jet aircraft of the first samples do not look for the most part anachronistic. Many of them look quite modern, and the technical characteristics (such as ceiling and speed) are not too different from modern ones, at least at first glance. However, with a closer look at the performance characteristics of these machines, it becomes clear that in recent decades a qualitative breakthrough has been made in two main directions. First, the concept of a variable thrust vector appeared, which creates the possibility of a sharp and unexpected maneuver. Secondly, today they are able to stay in the air much longer and cover long distances. This factor is due to low fuel consumption, that is, efficiency. It is achieved by using, in technical terms, a two-circuit scheme (low degree of two-circuit). Specialists know that the specified fuel combustion technology ensures its more complete combustion.
Other signs of a modern jet plane
There are several of them. Modern civil jet aircraft are characterized by low engine noise, increased comfort and high stability in flight. Usually they are wide-body (including multi-deck). Models of military aircraft are equipped with means (active and passive) for achieving low radar signature and In a sense, the requirements for defense and commercial models overlap today. Aircraft of all types need efficiency, albeit for various reasons: in one case, to increase profitability, in the other, to expand the combat radius. And today it is necessary to make noise as little as possible for both civilians and military men.
Jet planes are the most powerful and modern aircraft of the 20th century. Their fundamental difference from others is that they are propelled by an air-breathing or jet engine. Currently, they form the basis of modern aviation, both civil and military.
History of jet aircraft
For the first time in the history of aviation, the Romanian designer Henri Coanda tried to create jet aircraft. This was at the very beginning of the 20th century, in 1910. He and his assistants tested the plane, named after him Coanda-1910, which was equipped with a piston engine instead of the familiar propeller. It was he who set in motion an elementary vane compressor.
However, many doubt that this was the first jet aircraft. After the end of World War II, Coanda said that the model he created was a motor-compressor air-jet engine, contradicting himself. In his original publications and patent applications, he made no such claims.
The photographs of the Romanian aircraft show that the engine is located near the wooden fuselage, therefore, if the fuel was burned, the pilot and the aircraft would be destroyed by the resulting fire.
Coanda himself claimed that the fire did destroy the tail of the aircraft during the first flight, but documentary evidence has not survived.
It is worth noting that in jet aircraft produced in 1940, the skin was all-metal and had additional thermal protection.
Experiments with jet aircraft
Officially, the first jet took off on June 20, 1939. It was then that the first experimental flight of an aircraft created by German designers took place. A little later, Japan and the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition released their samples.
The German company Heinkel began experiments with jet aircraft in 1937. Two years later, the He-176 model made its first official flight. However, after the first five test flights, it became obvious that there was no chance of launching this sample into the series.
The problems of the first jet planes
There were several mistakes made by German designers. First, a liquid-jet engine was chosen. It used methanol and hydrogen peroxide. They served as a fuel and oxidizer.
The developers assumed that these jet aircraft would be able to reach speeds of up to one thousand kilometers per hour. However, in practice, it was possible to achieve a speed of only 750 kilometers per hour.
Secondly, the aircraft had exorbitant fuel consumption. With him he had to take so much that the aircraft could retire a maximum of 60 kilometers from the airfield. After he needed refueling. The only plus, in comparison with other early models, is the fast climb speed. It was 60 meters per second. At the same time, subjective factors played a certain role in the fate of this model. So, she simply did not like Adolf Hitler, who was present at one of the test launches.
The first production sample
Despite the failure with the first prototype, it was the German aircraft designers who were the first to launch the jet aircraft into serial production.
The production of the Me-262 model was put on stream. This aircraft made its first test flight in 1942, in the midst of World War II, when Germany had already invaded Soviet Union... This novelty could significantly affect the final outcome of the war. For service German army this combat aircraft arrived already in 1944.
Moreover, the aircraft was produced in various modifications - both as a reconnaissance aircraft, and as an attack aircraft, and as a bomber, and as a fighter. In total, until the end of the war, one and a half thousand of these aircraft were produced.
These jet military aircraft were distinguished by enviable technical characteristics by the standards of the time. They were equipped with two turbojet engines, and an 8-stage axial compressor was available. Unlike the previous model, this one, widely known as "Messerschmitt", did not consume much fuel and had good flight performance.
The speed of the jet aircraft reached 870 kilometers per hour, the flight range was more than a thousand kilometers, the maximum altitude was over 12 thousand meters, the climb speed was 50 meters per second. The empty weight of the aircraft was less than 4 tons, fully equipped reached 6 thousand kilograms.
The Messerschmitts were armed with 30-millimeter cannons (there were at least four of them), the total mass of missiles and bombs that the plane could carry was about one and a half thousand kilograms.
During World War II, the Messerschmitts destroyed 150 aircraft. The losses of the German aviation were about 100 aircraft... Experts point out that the number of losses could have been much less if the pilots were better prepared to work on a fundamentally new aircraft. In addition, there were problems with the engine, which wore out quickly and was unreliable.
Japanese pattern
During the Second World War, almost all the warring countries tried to release their first aircraft with a jet engine. Japanese aircraft engineers distinguished themselves by being the first to use a liquid-jet engine in mass production. It was used in the Japanese manned projectile aircraft, which were flown by kamikaze. From the end of 1944 to the end of World War II, more than 800 of these aircraft entered service with the Japanese army.
Japanese jet aircraft specifications
Since this plane, in fact, was disposable - kamikazes immediately crashed on it, then they built it according to the principle of "cheap and cheerful". The bow part was made of a wooden glider; during takeoff, the aircraft developed a speed of up to 650 kilometers per hour. All powered by three liquid jet engines. The aircraft did not need takeoff engines or landing gear. He did without them.
A Japanese kamikaze aircraft was delivered to the target by an Ohka bomber, after which liquid-jet engines were turned on.
At the same time, the Japanese engineers and the military themselves noted that the efficiency and productivity of such a scheme was extremely low. The bombers themselves were easily calculated using locators installed on ships that were part of the US Navy. This happened even before the kamikaze had time to tune in to the target. Ultimately, many planes died on the distant approaches to their final destination. Moreover, they shot down both the planes in which the kamikaze were sitting and the bombers that delivered them.
UK response
On the British side, only one jet aircraft took part in World War II - the Gloster Meteor. He made his first sortie in March 1943.
It entered service with the British Royal Air Force in mid-1944. Its serial production continued until 1955. And these aircraft were in service until the 70s. In total, about three and a half thousand of these aircraft rolled off the assembly line. Moreover, a wide variety of modifications.
During the Second World War, only two modifications of fighters were produced, then their number increased. Moreover, one of the modifications was so secret that they did not fly into the enemy's territory, so that in the event of a crash, the enemy's aviation engineers would not get it.
Basically, they were engaged in repelling German aircraft attacks. They were based near Brussels in Belgium. However, since February 1945, German aircraft have forgotten about attacks, concentrating exclusively on defensive capabilities. Therefore, in Last year During World War II, of the more than 200 Global Meteor aircraft, only two were lost. Moreover, this was not the result of the efforts of the German aviators. Both aircraft collided with each other during the landing approach. At that time, the airfield was overcast.
Technical characteristics of the British aircraft
The British aircraft Global Meteor had enviable technical characteristics. The speed of the jet plane reached almost 850 thousand kilometers per hour. The wingspan is more than 13 meters, the take-off weight is about 6 and a half thousand kilograms. The plane took off to an altitude of almost 13 and a half kilometers, while the flight range was more than two thousand kilometers.
The British aircraft were armed with four 30mm cannons, which were highly effective.
Americans are among the last
Among all the major participants in World War II, the United States Air Force was one of the last to release a jet. The American model Lockheed F-80 hit UK airfields only in April 1945. A month before the surrender of the German troops. Therefore, he practically did not have time to take part in hostilities.
The Americans actively used this aircraft several years later during the Korean War. It was in this country that the first ever battle between two jet aircraft took place. On the one hand, there was the American F-80, and on the other, the Soviet MiG-15, which at that time was more modern, already transonic. The Soviet pilot was victorious.
In total, more than one and a half thousand of these aircraft entered service with the American army.
The first Soviet jet aircraft rolled off the assembly line in 1941. He was released in record time. It took 20 days for design and another month for production. The nozzle of a jet plane performed the function of protecting its parts from excessive heating.
The first Soviet model was a wooden glider to which liquid-jet engines were attached. When the Great Patriotic War began, all the developments were transferred to the Urals. Experimental flights and tests began there. As conceived by the designers, the plane was supposed to reach speeds of up to 900 kilometers per hour. However, as soon as its first tester, Grigory Bakhchivandzhi, approached the 800 kilometers per hour mark, the aircraft crashed. The test pilot was killed.
It was only in 1945 that the Soviet jet aircraft model was finally finalized. But the mass production of two models began at once - the Yak-15 and the MiG-9.
Compared technical characteristics Joseph Stalin himself took part in two cars. As a result, it was decided to use the Yak-15 as a training aircraft, and the MiG-9 was placed at the disposal of the Air Force. More than 600 MiGs were produced in three years. However, the aircraft was soon discontinued.
There were two main reasons. They developed it in a frank haste, constantly making changes. In addition, the pilots themselves were suspicious of him. It took a lot of effort to master the car, and it was absolutely impossible to make mistakes in aerobatics.
As a result, the improved MiG-15 was replaced in 1948. A Soviet jet plane flies at a speed of over 860 kilometers per hour.
Passenger plane
The most famous jet passenger aircraft, along with the British Concorde, is the Soviet Tu-144. Both of these models were supersonic.
Soviet aircraft entered production in 1968. Since then, the sound of a jet plane has often been heard over Soviet airfields.
On the morning of March 27, 1943, the first Soviet jet fighter "BI-1" took off from the airfield of the Koltsovo Air Force Research Institute in Sverdlovsk region... Passed the seventh test flight to achieve maximum speed. Reaching a two-kilometer altitude and gaining a speed of about 800 km / h, the plane suddenly went into a dive at the 78th second after running out of fuel and collided with the ground. An experienced test pilot G. Ya. Bakhchivandzhi, who was sitting at the helm, was killed. This disaster became an important stage in the development of aircraft with liquid-propellant rocket engines in the USSR, but although work on them continued until the end of the 1940s, this direction of aviation development turned out to be a dead end. Nevertheless, these first, albeit not very successful steps had a serious impact on the entire further history post-war development of Soviet aircraft and rocketry ...
Joining the "jet" club
"The era of propeller-driven airplanes should be followed by the era of jet airplanes ..." - these words of the founder of jet technology, KE Tsiolkovsky, began to be embodied in the mid-1930s of the twentieth century.
By this time, it became clear that a further significant increase in aircraft flight speed due to an increase in the power of piston engines and a more perfect aerodynamic shape is practically impossible. The aircraft had to be equipped with motors, the power of which could not be increased without an excessive increase in the mass of the engine. So, to increase the flight speed of a fighter from 650 to 1000 km / h, it was necessary to increase the power of the piston engine 6 (!) Times.
It was obvious that the piston engine was to be replaced by a jet engine, which, having smaller transverse dimensions, would allow reaching high speeds, giving more thrust per unit of weight.
Jet engines are divided into two main classes: air-jet engines, which use the energy of oxidation of combustible oxygen in the air taken from the atmosphere, and rocket engines, containing all the components of the working fluid on board and capable of operating in any environment, including airless. The first type includes turbojet (turbojet), pulsating air-jet (PuVRD) and ramjet (ramjet), and the second - liquid-propellant rocket (LPRE) and solid-propellant rocket (TTRD) engines.
The first samples of jet technology appeared in countries where traditions in the development of science and technology and the level aviation industry were extremely high. These are, first of all, Germany, the USA, as well as England, Italy. In 1930, the project of the first turbojet engine was patented by the Englishman Frank Whittle, then the first working model of the engine was assembled in 1935 in Germany by Hans von Ohain, and in 1937 the Frenchman Rene Leduc received a government order for the creation of a ramjet engine ...
In the USSR practical work over the "jet" theme was carried out mainly in the direction of liquid-propellant rocket engines. The founder of rocket propulsion in the USSR was V.P. Glushko. In 1930, then an employee of the Gas Dynamic Laboratory (GDL) in Leningrad, which at that time was the only design bureau in the world to develop solid-propellant missiles, he created the first domestic LPRE ORM-1. And in Moscow in 1931-1933. F. L. Tsander, a scientist and designer of the Jet Propulsion Research Group (GIRD), developed the OR-1 and OR-2 LPRE.
A new powerful impetus to the development of jet technology in the USSR was given by the appointment of MN Tukhachevsky in 1931 to the post of Deputy People's Commissar of Defense and Chief of Armaments of the Red Army. It was he who insisted on the adoption in 1932 of the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars "On the development of steam turbine and jet engines, as well as jet-powered aircraft ...". The work begun after this at the Kharkov Aviation Institute made it possible only by 1941 to create a working model of the first Soviet turbojet engine designed by A.M. Lyulka and contributed to the launch on August 17, 1933 of the first in the USSR liquid-propellant rocket GIRD-09, which reached an altitude of 400 m.
But the lack of more tangible results pushed Tukhachevsky in September 1933 to merge the GDL and the GIRD into a single Jet Research Institute (RNII) headed by a Leningrader, 1st rank military engineer I.T.Kleimenov. His deputy was the future Chief Designer of the space program, Muscovite S.P.Korolev, who two years later in 1935 was appointed head of the rocket aircraft department. And although the RNII was subordinate to the ammunition management of the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry and its main topic was the development of rocket shells (the future "Katyusha"), Korolev managed, together with Glushko, to calculate the most advantageous design schemes for devices, types of engines and control systems, types of fuel and materials. As a result, by 1938 in his department, an experimental guided missile weapon system was developed, including projects of liquid-propellant cruise "212" and ballistic "204" long-range missiles with gyroscopic control, aircraft missiles for firing at air and ground targets, anti-aircraft solid-fuel missiles with guidance on the light and radio beam.
In an effort to get the support of the military leadership and in the development of a high-altitude rocket plane "218", Korolev substantiated the concept of a fighter-interceptor capable of reaching great height and attack aircraft that have broken through to the defended object.
But the wave of mass repressions that unfolded in the army after the arrest of Tukhachevsky reached the RNII. There a counterrevolutionary Trotskyist organization was "exposed", and its "members" IT Kleimenov, GE Langemak were shot, and Glushko and Korolev were sentenced to 8 years in camps.
These events slowed down the development of jet technology in the USSR and allowed European designers to get ahead. On June 30, 1939, the German pilot Erich Varzitz took off the world's first jet aircraft with a liquid-propellant engine designed by Helmut Walter "Heinkel" He-176, reaching a speed of 700 km / h, and two months later, the world's first jet aircraft with a turbojet engine " Heinkel "He-178, equipped with the engine of Hans von Ohain," HeS-3 B "with a thrust of 510 kg and a speed of 750 km / h. A year later, in August 1940, the Italian Caproni-Campini N1 took off, and in May 1941 the British Gloucester Pioneer E.28 / 29 took off with the Whittle W-1 turbojet engine designed by Frank Whittle.
Thus, Nazi Germany became the leader in the jet race, which, in addition to aviation programs, began to implement a missile program under the leadership of Wernher von Braun at a secret training ground in Peenemünde ...
But still, although the massive repressions in the USSR caused significant damage, they could not stop all the work on such an obvious reactive topic that Korolev had begun. In 1938 RNII was renamed to NII-3, now the "royal" rocket plane "218-1" began to be designated "RP-318-1". New leading designers, engineers A. Shcherbakov and A. Pallo replaced the ORM-65 liquid-propellant engine of the "enemy of the people" V. P. Glushko with the nitric-acid-kerosene engine "RDA-1-150" designed by L. S. Dushkin.
And now, after almost a year of testing, in February 1940, the first flight of the RP-318-1 took place in tow behind the R 5 aircraft. Test pilot? P. Fedorov at an altitude of 2800 m unhooked the tow rope and started the rocket engine. A small cloud of an incendiary squib appeared behind the rocket plane, then brown smoke, then a fiery jet about a meter long. "RP-318-1", having developed a maximum speed of only 165 km / h, went into flight with a climb.
This modest achievement nevertheless allowed the USSR to join the pre-war "jet club" of the leading aviation powers ...
"Close fighter"
The successes of the German designers did not go unnoticed by the Soviet leadership. In July 1940, the Defense Committee under the Council of People's Commissars adopted a resolution defining the creation of the first domestic aircraft with jet engines. The decree, in particular, provided for the solution of issues "on the use of high-power jet engines for ultra-high-speed stratospheric flights" ...
The massive Luftwaffe raids on British cities and the absence in the Soviet Union of a sufficient number of radar stations revealed the need to create a fighter-interceptor to cover especially important objects, on the project of which young engineers A. Ya.Bereznyak and A.M. Isaev began to work in the spring of 1941 from the design bureau of designer V.F.Bolkhovitinov. The concept of their rocket interceptor with a Dushkin engine or a "close fighter" was based on Korolev's proposal put forward back in 1938.
When an enemy aircraft appeared, the "close fighter" had to take off quickly and, having a high rate of climb and speed, catch up and destroy the enemy in the first attack, then, after running out of fuel, using the reserve of altitude and speed, plan for landing.
The project was distinguished by its extraordinary simplicity and low cost - the entire structure was supposed to be solid wood from plywood. The engine frame, the protection of the pilot and the landing gear, which were removed under the influence of compressed air, were made of metal.
With the beginning of the war, Bolkhovitinov attracted all the OKB to work on the aircraft. In July 1941, a draft design with an explanatory note was sent to Stalin, and in August the State Defense Committee decided to urgently build an interceptor, which was necessary for the Moscow air defense units. According to the order of the People's Commissariat of the Aviation Industry, 35 days were given for the manufacture of the machine.
The aircraft, called "BI" (close fighter or, as journalists later interpreted, "Bereznyak - Isaev") was built almost without detailed working drawings, drawing its full-size parts on plywood. The fuselage skin was glued on a veneer blank, then attached to the frame. The keel was carried out at the same time with the fuselage, like a thin wooden wing of a coffered structure, and was covered with a canvas. Even a carriage for two 20-mm ShVAK cannons with 90 rounds of ammunition was made of wood. The LRE D-1 A-1100 was installed in the aft fuselage. The engine consumed 6 kg of kerosene and acid per second. The total fuel supply on board the aircraft, equal to 705 kg, ensured engine operation for almost 2 minutes. The estimated take-off weight of the BI aircraft was 1650 kg with an empty weight of 805 kg.
In order to reduce the time for creating an interceptor, at the request of the Deputy People's Commissar of the Aviation Industry for Experimental Aircraft Construction A.S. Yakovlev, the glider of the BI aircraft was examined in a full-scale TsAGI wind tunnel, and at the airfield test pilot BN Kudrin began jogging and approaching in tow ... We had to tinker a lot with the development of the power plant, since nitric acid corroded tanks and wiring and had a harmful effect on humans.
However, all work was interrupted due to the evacuation of the design bureau to the Urals in the village of Belimbay in October 1941. There, in order to debug the operation of the liquid-propellant engine systems, a ground stand was mounted - the BI fuselage with a combustion chamber, tanks and pipelines. By the spring of 1942, the ground test program was completed. Soon Glushko, released from prison, got acquainted with the design of the aircraft and the test bench.
Flight tests of the unique fighter were entrusted to Captain Bakhchivandzhi, who made 65 sorties at the front and shot down 5 German aircraft. He had previously mastered the management of systems at the stand.
The morning of May 15, 1942 forever entered the history of Russian cosmonautics and aviation, with the takeoff from the ground of the first Soviet aircraft with a liquid-propellant jet engine. The flight, which lasted 3 minutes 9 seconds at a speed of 400 km / h and a climb rate of 23 m / s, made a strong impression on everyone present. This is how Bolkhovitinov recalled it in 1962: “For us, standing on the ground, this take-off was unusual. With an unusually fast gaining speed, the plane took off from the ground in 10 seconds and disappeared from sight in 30 seconds. Only the flame of the engine spoke of where he was. Several minutes passed in this way. Frankly, my veins were shaking. "
The members of the state commission noted in the official act that "the takeoff and flight of the BI-1 aircraft with a rocket engine, first used as the main engine of the aircraft, proved the possibility of practical flight on a new principle, which opens up a new direction for the development of aviation." The test pilot noted that the flight on the BI aircraft, in comparison with conventional types of aircraft, is extremely pleasant, and the aircraft is superior to other fighters in terms of ease of control.
A day after the tests, a solemn meeting and meeting were held in Bilimbay. A poster hung over the presidium table: "Greetings to Captain Bakhchivandzhi, the pilot who made a flight to a new one!"
Soon, the State Defense Committee decided to build a series of 20 BI-VS aircraft, where, in addition to two cannons, a cluster bomb was installed in front of the pilot's cockpit, which housed ten small anti-aircraft bombs weighing 2.5 kg each.
A total of 7 test flights were performed on the BI fighter, each of which recorded the best flight performance of the aircraft. The flights took place without flight accidents, only minor damage to the landing gear occurred during landings.
But on March 27, 1943, when accelerating to a speed of 800 km / h at an altitude of 2000 m, the third prototype spontaneously went into a dive and crashed into the ground near the airfield. The commission investigating the circumstances of the crash and death of test pilot Bakhchivandzhi was unable to establish the reasons for the delay in the aircraft at its peak, noting that the phenomena occurring at flight speeds of the order of 800-1000 km / h have not yet been studied.
The catastrophe hurt the reputation of the Bolkhovitinov Design Bureau - all the unfinished BI-VS interceptors were destroyed. And although later in 1943-1944. a modification of the BI-7 was designed with ramjet engines at the wing ends, and in January 1945 pilot BN Kudrin performed the last two flights on the BI-1, all work on the aircraft was discontinued.
And yet the liquid-propellant engine
The concept of a rocket fighter was most successfully implemented in Germany, where, since January 1939, in a special "Section L" of the firm "Messerschmitt", where Professor A. Lippisch and his staff moved from the German glider institute, work was underway on "Project X" - " on-site interceptor "Me-163" "Komet" with liquid-propellant rocket engine operating on a mixture of hydrazine, methanol and water. It was an aircraft of an unconventional "tailless" scheme, which, for the sake of maximum weight reduction, took off from a special trolley and landed on a ski extending from the fuselage. The first flight at maximum thrust was performed by test pilot Dietmar in August 1941, and already in October, for the first time in history, the mark of 1000 km / h was exceeded. It took more than two years of testing and development before the Me-163 was put into production. It became the first aircraft with a liquid-propellant rocket engine to take part in battles since May 1944. And although more than 300 interceptors were produced by February 1945, no more than 80 combat-ready aircraft were in service.
The combat use of Me-163 fighters showed the inconsistency of the missile interceptor concept. Due to the high speed of approach, the German pilots did not have time to accurately aim, and the limited supply of fuel (only for 8 minutes of flight) did not make it possible for a second attack. After running out of fuel on planning, the interceptors became easy prey for American fighters - "Mustangs" and "Thunderbolts". Before the end of hostilities in Europe, Me-163 shot down 9 enemy aircraft, while losing 14 aircraft. However, the losses from accidents and disasters were three times higher than the combat losses. The unreliability and short range of the Me-163 contributed to the fact that the Luftwaffe leadership launched the other Me-262 and He-162 jet fighters into serial production.
The leadership of the Soviet aviation industry in 1941-1943. was focused on the gross production of the maximum number of combat aircraft and the improvement of production samples and was not interested in the development of promising work on jet technology. Thus, the BI-1 disaster put an end to other projects of Soviet missile interceptors: Andrei Kostikov's 302, Roberto Bartini's R-114 and Korolev's RP. Here the mistrust that Stalin's deputy for experimental aircraft construction Yakovlev felt in jet technology, considering it a matter of a very distant future, played a role.
But information from Germany and the Allied countries became the reason that in February 1944 the State Defense Committee in its decree pointed out the intolerable situation with the development of jet technology in the country. At the same time, all developments in this regard were now concentrated in the newly organized Research Institute of Jet Aviation, whose deputy chief was Bolkhovitinov. This institute brought together groups of jet engine designers who had previously worked at various enterprises, headed by M. M. Bondaryuk, V. P. Glushko, L. S. Dushkin, A. M. Isaev, A. M. Lyulka.
In May 1944, the State Defense Committee adopted another decree that outlined a broad program for the construction of jet aircraft. This document provided for the creation of modifications of the Yak-3, La-7 and Su-6 with an accelerating LPRE, the construction of "purely rocket" aircraft at the Yakovlev and Polikarpov design bureaus, an experimental Lavochkin aircraft with a turbojet engine, as well as fighters with air-jet motor-compressor engines at the Mikoyan Design Bureau and Sukhoi. For this, the Su-7 fighter was created in the Sukhoi design bureau, in which the RD-1 liquid-jet developed by Glushko worked together with a piston engine.
Flights on the Su-7 began in 1945. When the RD-1 was turned on, the aircraft's speed increased by an average of 115 km / h, but the tests had to be stopped due to the frequent failure of the jet engine. A similar situation developed in the design bureaus of Lavochkin and Yakovlev. On one of the experimental La-7 R aircraft, the accelerator exploded in flight, the test pilot miraculously managed to escape. When testing the Yak-3 RD, test pilot Viktor Rastorguev managed to reach a speed of 782 km / h, but during the flight the plane exploded, the pilot died. More frequent accidents led to the fact that the tests of aircraft with "RD-1" were stopped.
Korolev, who was released from prison, also contributed to this work. In 1945, for his participation in the development and testing of rocket launchers for combat aircraft "Pe-2" and "La-5 VI", he was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honor.
One of the most interesting projects of interceptors with a rocket engine was the project of the supersonic (!!!) fighter "RM-1" or "SAM-29", developed at the end of 1944 by the undeservedly forgotten aircraft designer A. S. Moskalev. The aircraft was designed according to the "flying wing" of a triangular shape with oval leading edges, and its development was based on the pre-war experience of creating aircraft "Sigma" and "Strela". The RM-1 project was supposed to have the following characteristics: crew - 1 person, power plant - RD2 MZV with a thrust of 1590 kgf, wingspan - 8.1 m and its area - 28.0 m2, takeoff weight - 1600 kg , the maximum speed is 2200 km / h (and this is in 1945!). TsAGI believed that the construction and flight tests of the RM-1 were one of the most promising areas in the future development of Soviet aviation.
In November 1945, the order to build RM-1 was signed by Minister A. I. Shakhurin, but ... in January 1946, the notorious 'aviation business' was launched, and Shakhurin was convicted, and the order to build RM- 1 "canceled by Yakovlev ...
The post-war acquaintance with German trophies revealed a significant lag in the development of domestic jet aircraft construction. To close the gap, it was decided to use German engines "JUMO-004" and "BMW-003", and then create their own on their basis. These engines were named "RD-10" and "RD-20".
In 1945, simultaneously with the task of building a MiG-9 fighter with two RD-20s, the Mikoyan Design Bureau was tasked with developing an experimental fighter-interceptor with an RD-2 M-3 V rocket engine and a speed of 1000 km / h. The aircraft, designated I-270 ("Zh"), was soon built, but its further tests did not show the advantages of a rocket fighter over an aircraft with a turbojet engine, and work on this topic was closed. In the future, liquid-propellant jet engines in aviation began to be used only on prototype and experimental aircraft or as aviation accelerators.
They were the first
“… It’s scary to remember how little I knew and understood then. Today they say: "discoverers", "pioneers". And we walked in the dark and stuffed hefty bumps. No special literature, no technique, no well-established experiment. The stone age of jet aircraft. We were both complete burdocks! .. "- this is how Alexei Isaev recalled the creation of BI-1. Yes, indeed, because of their colossal fuel consumption, aircraft with liquid-propellant rocket engines did not take root in aviation, forever giving way to turbojets. But having made their first steps in aviation, liquid-propellant rocket engines have firmly taken their place in rocketry.
In the USSR, during the war years in this regard, a breakthrough was the creation of the BI-1 fighter, and here the special merit of Bolkhovitinov, who took under his wing and managed to attract to work such future luminaries of Soviet rocketry and cosmonautics as: Vasily Mishin, First Deputy Chief designer Korolev, Nikolai Pilyugin, Boris Chertok - chief designers of control systems for many combat missiles and launch vehicles, Konstantin Bushuev - head of the Soyuz - Apollo project, Alexander Bereznyak - cruise missile designer, Alexey Isaev - developer of liquid-propellant rocket engines for submarine missiles and space devices, Arkhip Lyulka is the author and the first developer of domestic turbojet engines ...
Received a clue and the mystery of the death of Bakhchivandzhi. In 1943, the T-106 high-speed wind tunnel was put into operation at TsAGI. It immediately began to conduct extensive studies of aircraft models and their elements at high subsonic speeds. The BI model was also tested to identify the causes of the crash. According to the test results, it became clear that the "BI" crashed due to the peculiarities of the flow around the straight wing and tail at transonic speeds and the resulting phenomenon of pulling the aircraft into a dive, which the pilot could not overcome. The crash of March 27, 1943, the BI-1 was the first that allowed Soviet aircraft designers to solve the problem of the "wave crisis" by installing a swept wing on the MiG-15 fighter. Thirty years later, in 1973, Bakhchivandzhi was posthumously awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. Yuri Gagarin spoke about him like this:
"... Without the flights of Grigory Bakhchivandzhi, perhaps there would have been no April 12, 1961". Who could have known that exactly 25 years later, on March 27, 1968, like Bakhchivandzhi at the age of 34, Gagarin would also die in a plane crash. They were really united by the main thing - they were the first.
Evgeny Muzrukov
In our era, you can hardly surprise someone with technological innovations. Moreover, now, when the momentum of the development of technology has gained such a speed, which in the past epochs simply did not dream of. The same goes for airplanes. Now with turbojets - a common thing. And once people could not dream of such a thing.
The world's first passenger jet aircraft appeared only in the middle of the last century, when the development of aviation was actively continuing. Of course, in connection with the Second World War, special attention was paid primarily to the military, therefore, after its end, engineers and inventors turned their attention to passenger liners.
To begin with, let's define what kind of aircraft it is? This is an airplane with a jet engine.
Its principle of operation consists in using a mixture of air taken from the atmosphere and oxygen oxidation products of the fuel that are in the air. Due to the oxidation reaction, the working fluid heats up and, expanding, is ejected from the engine very quickly, while producing jet thrust.
First models
Aircraft, which then became prototypes for passenger liners, developed then in Germany, or rather in the Third Reich, and in Great Britain. The pioneers in this area are the Germans.
Heinkel He 178- considered the first jet-powered aircraft. It was first tested on August 27, 1939. The aircraft showed quite encouraging results, but the higher management in the person of the Reich Aviation Ministry considered that this technology was not interesting. And the main focus at that time was precisely military aviation technology.
The British also kept up with the Germans. And in 1941 the world saw the Gloster E.28 / 39. The engine was designed by Frank Whittle.
Gloster E.28 / 39.
It was these prototypes that showed everyone how aviation would go in the future.
First jet passenger aircraft
The first jet aircraft for passengers is considered to be created by the British, "Comet-1"... It has been tested July 27, 1949. He had 4 turbojet engines, and the salon was calculated for 32 passengers... In addition, it was installed 2 hydrogen peroxide accelerators... It was used on highways to Europe and Africa. For example, Johannesburg with stops along the way. The entire flight time was 23.5 hours.
Later, "Comet-2" and "Comet-3" were developed., but they did not meet expectations and were discontinued due to metal fatigue and insufficient strength of the fuselage. Nevertheless, some modifications are still used for the design of British Air Force fighters.
Six years later, the USSR introduced the TU-104. The first Soviet jet passenger aircraft. For the first time he took to the air June 15, 1955. A.N. Tupolev took as the basis of his project bomber with jet engines TU-16. He simply increased the fuselage, lowered the wing under it, and placed 100 seats for passengers. Since 1956 it was launched into mass production.
For the next two years, it was the world's only jet aircraft., which was used to transport civilians. He had 2 turbojet engines. Its maximum the speed reached 950 km / h, and he could fly up to 2700 km.
Such novelties for the USSR were also introduced on it, like dining on board, beautifully dressed flight attendants and smart pilots.
However, over 4 years of its operation, 37 accidents occurred with the participation of this aircraft. This is the largest number of accidents among all Russian aircraft. It is not surprising that N.S. Khrushchev refused to even approach him. Despite the fact that it was removed from production, it was still used until 1979. for flights.
In 1958 on the passenger lines released . He could take on board from 90 to 180 passengers. Engines of different powers were installed on different models. The aircraft was intended for medium and long haul routes. However, there were much more accidents with it than with the TU-104.
SE.210 Caravelle 1.
A breakthrough in world aviation was the creation of the French SE.210 Caravelle 1... He started flying in 1959 mainly in the French colony in Africa. He also had 2 turbojets, but Rolls-Royce, in the tail of the aircraft. This helped to achieve that improved aerodynamics, and noise in the cabin was minimized, and the reliability of the air intakes was increased.
And the ladder was also made in a different way than other aircraft of that time - in the form of a descending part of the fuselage. The salon also carried out innovations: the windows became larger and the passage was widened. It was used on medium-range routes only.
A total of 12 aircraft of this type were produced, but still it could not stand the rivalry with Boeings, and further production was stopped.
